Altruism involves foregoing someone’s own preferences and focusing on other people’s preferences. Altruism is basically a mind set where one feels the urge to help others, and if well practiced, it can last a life time of a child. Involvement of children in altruism activities not only helps them learn the concept, but also get to have an experience with it.

In schools, teachers can be of help in instilling altruism in children through having the children interview volunteers in the society. Since volunteers do not need anything to be offered in order to people in the society, teachers can take the initiative of inviting these people in the classrooms and giving children a chance of interviewing them. Through these interviews, a child can get to learn the motivations that these people have as well as the various experiences that these people have gone through. However, it is even better if the volunteers are from different organizations as children have the chance of learning a wide range experience from them. After carrying out the interviews to these people, the teacher can give a chance to the children to discuss what they found out about the activities of the volunteers. Such a move tends to instill a sense of altruism, as they can be able to relate with the experiences shared by the volunteers (Murphy Para 2).

Still in classrooms, children can be subjected to teachings about bystander activities. The importance of having these activities is to make sure that children learn the various factors that influence altruism. Through such efforts, children tend to put into consideration the reasons why people help strangers, while others do not. Usually, this is done through a process, for a child is required to identify a stranger who may be in need of help. After this, a child is required to have a prediction on whether the bystanders are likely to help the stranger and justifies the prediction he gives out. Finally, the children can be called upon to share their findings on how to promote altruism by making a list of the various factors. As a way of ensuring that the children get to understand the importance of having altruism, they can be engaged in discussions and even made to write about development of altruism.

Parents, especially mothers can be of help in development of altruism among their children. They can do these by practicing altruism. Sometimes, instead of sending the child to do some activity for them, they may do them and even do the same for the child. Through this, a child is likely to learn having altruism in him/herself as children are great observers of the things that are happening around them (Karniol 308). Parents and guardians can also be an encouragement to children on the importance of having altruism in their lives. Teachers can also open up a session in a classroom, where the children learn the various needs of the society. Children can also be required to note them down with an aim of discussing them and also determining whether the various needs are met in the society. After determining the various needs in the society, the class may develop a project on how best to fulfill these needs. During development of the project of solving the problems, children are likely to develop teamwork as well as altruism.

Development of altruism in a child can best be done when the child is together with other children. When such happens, children are likely to share various experiences in life where altruism is being practiced or needed (Sartorius 177). Through the above mentioned activities, the concept of altruism can easily be instilled in a child.

Question: What effects did the Beer Hall Putsch have on the Nazi Party?

The Beer Hall Putsch was a unsuccessful endeavor during revolution, which happened at 1923 November. It is a time when Adolf Hitler led the Nazi party failed in attaining power in Munich. He attempted to seize German Weimar Republic and initiate right wing nationalism. The Beer Hall Putsch was an opportunity for Hitler to expose his political ideologies. Besides, it enhanced the influence of Hitler and aided in the growth of Nazi party. Hitler commanded Nazi soldiers referred to as storm troopers to meet up with powerful political officials at beer hall, Munich, Germany staging a trial to conquer power over Bavarian government (MobileReference, 2005).

They utilized Munich beer hall, Bürgerbräukeller to demonstrate their rebel for the Wilmer Republic political leadership with the help of SA officials timely when von Kahr was addressing three thousand individuals. At the time the hall was guarded by six hundred SA with a machine gun towards the auditorium entry. Hitler and his partners were able to pass through maintaining that “The national revolution has broken out! The hall is filled with six hundred men. Nobody is allowed to leave. The Bavarian government and the government at Berlin are deposed. A new government will be formed at once. The barracks of the Reichswehr and those of the police are occupied. Both have rallied to the swastika” (Lemons, 2005). He demanded the support of Von Kahr, Von Lossow and Von Seisser at gun point but von Kahr could not cooperate and this annoyed Hitler. This was irrespective of being offered a senior position if he would cooperate, but this did not intimidate him. In the hall, no person could move out as they were advised to calm down. Hitler addressed the crowd stating that von Kahr had supported him but this was not the case, which altered their attitudes immediately while maintaining that he was not opposed to von Kahr. The government officials were confused not to mention the loyalty of the citizens (Evans, 2004).

The Nazi party was growing rapidly but it was just considered as one of the right wing parties in the nation prior to the events at Beer Hall Putsch. Hitler utilized his wrath towards yhe Berlin Government. His followers by then were few but he relied on Munich citizens although it did not materialize. On this particular day the Bavarian Gustav Kahr, the Prime Minister, had been addressing prominent personnel at the beer hall. Hitler and the six hundred SA stormed the meeting. Once it was over, Hitler had not realized his error in letting von Kahr and his associates to go free since they reported the incidence. The central government demanded the arrest of the Nazi but this did not intimidate Hitler who hoped that his appealing to the political and armed forces would win their trust and that of the Nazi party to demonstrate against oppressive leadership of the central government.

Besides, he felt courageous since Luderndorff was leading the demonstration thus, was hopeful that they wouldn’t be fired since Luderndorff was a popular war hero. On his march to the central Munich together with the three thousand followers they were confronted with armed forces and police who fired shots killing 16 Nazi and 3 police officers while Hitler suffered an upset shoulder. He escaped the scene but was arrested after two days and accused of high treason and a five years imprisonment. The Monarchists were accused of trying to seize power from Bavarian government.  He used the trial to state his good intentions and his political ideas, which was publicized in the newspapers, as the initial exposure to a national wide responsiveness and propaganda.  His trial impressed the judge who reduced the sentence to eight months. As a result, Hitler’s party became even more popular as the sixteen deaths referred to as “blood martyrs” and imprisonment comprised of the Nazi propaganda. If this did not occur, he and his Nazi party would remain unpopular (Scheck, 1998).

Regarding the events, different perspectives have been aired regarding the political situation in Germany. According to Hodge, he terms the event as ‘dustbin of history’ if Hitler did not acquire the leadership (2010).  Sarat on the other hand maintains that it initiated a period of ritualized violence on the political rivals “designed to symbolize threat and retaliation, shaming and degradation, and demoralizing of enemies (Sarat, 2009 p.31). It marked the period of military dictatorship as Ludendorff got involved with the National Socialist on a weak relationship which was marked by ideological ambiguities. Ludendorff reflected the opinions of paramilitary groups thus were involved with Hitler whom he thought had political knowledge, rhetorical skills and a propaganda expert to attract the masses (Lemons, 2005). Hitler “was a master of rhetoric supportive of a sentimentalized view of order and control and brilliant street tactician of chaos and the timing of it…he utilized encoded presentations that promised a new ethical and moral order whose long-term aim was racial genocide” (Sarat, 2009 p. 34)

While in Landsberg prison, Hitler reconsidered his political motives and decided to operate within legal limits or constitutional means and not seizing power from the Wilmer Republic by creation of a political party to run for elections. Besides, the party was outlawed in Bavaria although its involvement in elections in nineteen twenty four was renamed as National Socialist Freedom Movement (NSFB). On the other hand, the Germans voted for the party during the elections in May, nineteen twenty four but lost eighteen seats in December the same year. The Nazi Party (NSDAP) was not doing well politically having few votes in three years. As a result, Hitler saw the need to inform the Germans of his political motives, which led to his authoring the Zweites Buch (Duiker & Spielvogel, 2006). As a result, the SA considered communist aspects where during March 1929 there was a representation of the party for presidential vote by Erich Ludendorff although he lost greatly.

The party involved in violent counterattacks, they were outlawed and consequently the party acquired much victory in Germany with much financial costs incurred during the campaigns. To oppose the legal backdrop the SA initiated anti-Jewish exploitation. Nazism characterized by mass demonstrations was taking over the control of the nation irrespective of divided loyalty from the Germans. It was the main political party in German Reichstag but had no majority votes, thus Hitler could not become a chancellor although the authoritarian system worked to his advantage becoming a chancellor. Eventually, they seized control over the society between 1931 and 1933 and initiated dictatorial control, which is regarded as a period of totalitarian rule for 12 years (Duiker & Spielvogel, 2006).

In conclusion, leadership was crucial irrespective of it being good or bad as demonstrated by the totalitarian leadership of the Nazi regime. Most importantly, it modified politics of the 20^th century. It led to the shift in politics opting for democracy while the monarchies collapsed.

Introduction

The Omaha people one of the federally recognized Native Americans tribe found in Northeastern part of Nebraska and parts of Iowa in the United States. The Omaha tribe engaged in a treaty with the United States federal government, which played a significant role in the establishment of the Omaha tribal homeland boundaries and the recognition of the independence of their government (Hargrett 78). This paper provides an overview of the total approach to nation building of the Omaha tribes by describing the four elements that are significant in fostering successful tribal economic development with regard to continuity of the government, separation of business from politics and appropriate strategies, and effective utilization of tribal resources.

With regard to government continuity, the research study revealed that the Omaha tribe depends on the tribal law in conjunction with the federal laws to protect their land and the resources found within the tribal boundaries. The political structure and sovereignty of the Ponca tribe is more effective compared to the Omaha tribe. The Ponca tribe political structure is characterized by transparency in the constitution and election processes. Transparency plays a significant role in ensuring the continuity of tribal governments. Contrary to the Omaha tribe, their political structure lacks transparency and equality in the representation of the views of the tribe members (Jorgensen 13).

In terms of separation of business from politics, the Omaha tribe business activities are centrally controlled by the government, in the sense that the tribal Council and the Secretary of Interior are charged with making all the decisions on behalf of the tribe; this implies that there is no separation of business from politics. On the other hand, the Ponca tribe separates its business from politics; this is because the PEDCO is in charge of business aspects while the tribal government is in charge of political matters.

There are also vast differences between the Omaha and the Ponca tribes in terms of implementation of proper strategy. The Omaha tribe focuses on the implementation of short-term goals, which have ultimately resulted to the bankruptcy of tribal business franchises such as the Omaha Casino and limited tribal sovereignty. The Ponca tribe on the other hand has focused on long term strategies, and has ultimately resulted to the success of most of the tribal business franchises, expansion and more tribal control of the community (Molly 2).

Differences as also evident in terms of utilization of tribal resources, the Omaha tribe deploys the use of standard approach, while the Ponca tribes deploys the Nation building approach in order to facilitate the development of their tribal country. The impacts of these differences are notable with differences in the success rates of the two communities (Omahatribe.com).

Notes

The differences in the four elements of successful tribal economic development depicts the significant role that appropriate strategies play in ensuring economic development of sovereign tribes in the United States. The different approaches to continuity of the government, separation of business from politics and appropriate strategies, and effective utilization of tribal resources by the Ponca and Omaha tribe are responsible for the success of one tribe and the failure of another tribe. This is due to the sovereignty of the tribal states as provided for the in the federal constitution. In retrospect, the research identified the Omaha tribe as standard, while the Ponca tribe as Nation building approach.

1. Implications of Cultural differences in the U.S. society revealed by Joey Skaggs’ Hoax

One of the main outcomes that openly revealed itself from Joey Skaggs’ prank is the cultural intolerance being practiced by various individuals and sectors of the American society. His fictitious name and company was credulous and widely correlated with Korea amongst American public hence the pessimistic responds being directed to the Asian culture in general. Eating dog meat is a cultural taboo in America and so Joey’s hoax was subjected to public and media outrage on the perception that the culture was weird and alien because dogs are considered pets in America.. This outrage was also fuelled by the advertisements which most Americans saw as unnecessary and compelling although it would not create such public uproar in Korea and other parts of Asia. Joey’s hoax confirmed the historical stereotyping of Asians have and the vagaries of cultural chauvinism imminent in American. It also brought forth the low significance of relativity in America although it’s a society that claims to embrace all cultures despite its practices.

2.  The Cultural differences between the U.S. and Sudanese Lost Boys

The story reaffirms the differences in verbal communication, social organization, and the overall cultural values. The Sudanese social structure connects, supports, and incorporates their family, friends, villages, and the nation at large. This is corroborated by their cohesive and affectionate behavior toward each other in response to most cultures in Africa which values and calls for collectivism. This culture is quite unusual as opposed to the American culture which expects one to do everything alone hence encouraging individualism. A cultural difference is also noted in the game of basketball which most American players use their roughness instead of their ‘brains’, therefore depicting the aggressive and assertive nature of the American male. There is also a fundamental cultural difference in housing with one of the Sudanese boys having an anxious feeling towards the size of an apartment building. The Sudanese boys also see a huge cultural difference at the amount of food within American’s disposal and the regularity at which they consume these foods. This documentary is quite riveting and trades in humor and hope rather than the many despairs in life. It also focuses on the integral values that other cultures can bring in solving daily dilemmas in life, while also serving as the basis for new innovations and creativity which embeds in the general society. This film brings out the view that although we might be separated by our cultures, we are all connected by the morals and sense of humanity.

3.  Personal Cultural Identity and Stereotypes Effects

Stereotyping is the false judgment of individuals or groups in dependence on their nationality, race, and sexual orientation, just to name a few. Since I come from an Arabian country, such qualities have relatively characterized my general personality when being stereotyped. People usually form stereotypes out of anger and fear for the main purpose of secluding certain individuals, groups or even nationalities from various agendas, social events or simply for the intentional  purpose of ignoring other views and ideas. Such stereotypes usually impede successful communication due to the wrong fixed perception of one’s personality therefore deeming them contemptible to relate with.

4. High Context and Low Context Cultures

High context cultures is that which the people are perceived to be very homogeneous, in that they have identical experiences, norms, values, and information networks, to name a few. The culture is only seen to be High-context due to the little change occurrence in their history and tradition over time. They are familiar with their environment and can express or even interpret their feelings without saying a word. This culture does not necessarily need the daily transactions in life to communicate and rather do this through gestures, inference, or even silence at times. Since High-context cultures can be nonverbal when interacting, they frequently use an indirect fashion for communication that other cultures cannot easily comprehend. While Low-context cultures is that which the people are perceived to be less homogeneous, mainly because they tend to ‘catalog’ their actions when communicating and interacting with each other. They do not have a common experience and therefore need extensive background details for a successful communication. This also means that they depend on verbal messages. Communicators in Low-context cultures tend to talk more rapidly with a frequently raised voice.

Question 1: What is Institutional Racism?

Institution racism refers to education economic, social and political set ups forces and policies that are intentional or unintentional acts, based on race, skin color, or cultures targeting discrimination and subordination of an person or an entity. Institution racism occurs in organizations where resources distribution, power and opportunities are for the benefit of a particular group of people or category based on cultures, skin color or race.  This type of racism has hierarchical structures where it is enacted through policies and frameworks by individuals and institutions keep them in force (Andersen & Collins, 2009). The origin of racism in United States can be traced back in the era of slavery, settlement, and American Indians schools segregations. This racism distinguish its self from other racism in that policies and practices within organizations are utilized to disadvantage selected race, ethnic groups or less privileged individuals. It is believed that institution racism can only exist to institution where power to control and enforce policies and practices are manifested to a single category of people. For example, whites given power and authority to enforce and enact policies and practices segregating other races or skin colors.

1. Define fully political Racism

Racism accounts all discrimination and prejudice practices to an individual based on the race or the skin color. Political racism is discussed by various scholars and policy makers as the attempt to discriminate individuals due to intergroup attitudes, political ideologies and politics issues. Like institutional racism, this type is more of political ideology in the field of social policies and democracy. Politics racism usually occur when an individual or a group of performs are discriminated politically due to color, race, cultures or racial ideologies. Political racism exists in conservative politics that are associated to policies opposing affirmative actions and conservative values and attitudes. For example, in United States, blacks voted for Obama given that he is black. In the same way, political racism is practiced when individuals are affiliated to a political party based on the race or the skin color leaders (Wise, 2005).

2. Define Economic Racism

According to business dictionary economic discrimination can be described as the application of labor markets discrimination, paying workers differently based on the race, color skin, or culture groups. In this regard, in the labor market or economic set up, individuals are treated unfairly, biased, and denied equally opportunities as regards to recruitment, selection, promotion or even transfers in the organization. Discrimination is this category is practiced on the grounds of sex/gender, religion, culture, and race or on political support and belief. For example, in countries such as America and Germany blacks and minority communities have discriminated years on economic grounds. It is commonly argued that most developed countries single most damaging factor is the prolonged effects within black and minority groups due to economic racism. Concisely, economic racism refers to discrimination and isolation of individuals of particular culture, race, color skin, or language on economic factors (Andersen & Collins, 2009).

3. Define Housing racism

This is discrimination that exists in the sale, purchase or renting of houses where qualified individuals are isolated or denied opportunity to ownership because of sex, religion, ethnic background or race and skin color.

4. Define legal racism

Legal racism refers to prejudice practices most prevalent in the legal systems particularly courts to give judgment based on race, or the skin color of the accused. In addition, legal policies and enforcements are formulated and applied in institutions or economic set-ups intentional or unintentional to discriminate particular group or section of individuals towards action or legal procedures (Wise, 2005).

5. Define educational racism

Education racism is a developed set of attitudes and behaviors that include superiority of one group and inferiority of another group in the education systems. Usually education system plays a crucial role in combating and eradicating the vice of racism. For example in many instances of  educational racism, children have the believe that certain group of people are better than others or certain race, skin or ethnic are superior than others. Education racism is much connected to apartheid systems where certain races or skin colors are supposed to join certain schools and other minority or school join a different school.

6. Define cultural racism

Today, globalised institutions and economies have developed a globalized culture. Cultural racism is one of various terms business and economic experts have coined to refer to racial ideology and practices that emerged due to globalization.  Other forms of racisms have much been buried and new racism replaced them. Culture racism is actually discrimination or isolation to opportunity or resources based on the cultural background of an individual. In this respect, individuals are denied opportunities through affirmative actions and other resources in the globalised world due to the cultures of origin (Wise, 2005).

7. Define medical racism

Medical racism is a medical malpractice prevalent in the health institution and community based health care. In this racism concept, health experts fail to adhere to the principle of equality or health care to all and discriminate attendance based on race, skin color or the ethnicity (Washington, 2008).  Also, the vice exist where scientist exploit others based on color or race

Question 2: what is the difference between prejudice and racism? Explain the anatomy of racism.

Prejudice is a negative reflection of assimilated power, which segregates individuals instead of connecting them. It consists of general preconceptions regarding a scenario a thing or an individual and often results due to racism. It is often taken to be pathological and originate from authoritarian personality, which often discriminate minority groups or the socially disadvantaged ones. Prejudice manifest as a part of social interactions, which enables individuals to become aware of the existence of their fellows in the society and most importantly aid in societal intermingling. Prejudice is a disintegrative power, which is attained via hatred, terror, and intimidation of an ordinary rival. The negative identity of a give group of people results to violence due to negative stereotyping, which results on its discrimination, based on the negative stereotypes. Prejudice has been explained as having categorical thoughts, which is often viewed as a normal trait due to normal prejudgments as a result of unavoidable orderly manner of thinking (Andersen & Collins, 2009).

Other studies reveal that prejudiced results from a favorite of a group in which a person belongs rather than on negative attitudes towards others. It may arise due to adoring, sympathizing and trusting one’s group. Prejudice results as one finds unusual or weird traits in other groups. Racism is an example of prejudice and may also result as a result of gender, ethnicity, socio-economic situations, and sexual orientation or due to religious affiliation.  Prejudice due to racism is apparent in the society. Racism is a set of beliefs which ascertains the existence of race and those racial traits causes superiority of inferiority of particular races. When individual are separated according to their race they are treated differently due to their genetic composition. Physical traits and cultural traits make one to identify or group others according to race where some people may fail to fit in the group they are designated, which creates an illusion of what a race is.

Racism can also be defined as a doctrine which infers that an individual is born with moral and social characteristics in relation to race. The history of man has been dominated by racism which has marginalized individuals according to skin color, their cultural values, nationality, and language among other features.  Racism is the basis by which there has been establishment of war and violence, slavery, nation’s formations as well as formation of legal codes. The issue of slavery is the most known reflection of racism, which oppressed the black and considered them as less human and therefore worth to be properties to labor for the superior race as the whites.  Racial prejudice is infectious and has been termed as a global problem. Its diagnosis is achieved through evaluations of certain manifestations such as terror, intolerance, division, isolation, bias and hatred. The manifestations clearly results from ignorance.

Racism on the other hand can be perceived as a doctrine in which inborn biological differences exist for human race. It dictates cultural or sole attainments with the notion that individual race is superior and should lead other races. Racism has also been taken to mean exulting the race in which one belongs while discriminating other races in which one stereotypes, prefers, fear or as a result of nationalism. Racism has been applied to explain social discrimination, racial prejudice, marginalization and certain occurrence of violence.  A racist is an individual who upholds racism. Racism may historically have been enhanced as the Portuguese explored the African continent and developed their own cities while taking the natives to be their rivals. Africans could not cope with their level of technology and were subdued by the western civilizations enslaving them and considering them as being from different savages. Slave trade enhanced as blacks sold their fellows depicting savagery. This facilitated attitudes towards slavery considering blacks as subhuman thus inferior.

A group of persons with distinguishable biological traits is called a race. All humans are Homo sapiens but have been distinct due to hair and skin color or texture, the color or shape of the eyes, limbs and organ size as well as the facial shape and appearances. However, it has been scientifically proven that the differences are only physical asserting that Homo sapiens have similar traits than are the differences. However, people have continuously perceived others with respect to their superficial traits. Humans physically differ only in their appearance. However if the pathology manifestations are evident, the result is usually demeaning. The anatomical or taxonomical differences have continued to make life diverse and therefore interesting. Besides, they award people with unique features, which can be blended with those of another to come up with even more interesting being. However, the unique traits have been perverted through racial prejudice, which segregate people into groups considering them inferior while themselves as superior. These preconceived suspicions towards a race consider some as inherently superior i.e. their physical, intellectual and cultural aspects while others as inferior and should be rightly been dominated. As a result, tension, conflict and violence arise due to denial of civil rights and privilege to engage politically economically and socially. Today racial profiling is common in the U.S as well as aspects of affirmative action, discrimination and inequality which have risen with the globalization process as foreign labor is imported and exported and limitations through immigration policies (Wise, 2005). Racism is not only discriminative but also exploiting manifested through various institutions. It is accustomed by economic imperatives and conferred by cultural, religious, literal, artistic, scientific and media aspects.

Introduction

Yosemite National Park is America’s most elegant natural wonders and it has something to offer every hardcore outdoors enthusiasts to the ordinary travelers who like family vacation. The park lies in the heart California in the east central, just about 190 miles due east of San Francisco. In 1890, Yosemite was constituted into a national park, and this means that its animals, plants, and land are protected by the government. The park is widely known for its waterfalls, meadows, streams, forests and other natural places. Yosemite is also a habitat to many animals which includes the black bear, coyotes, and the bighorn sheep, just to name a few, while also owls, lizards, snakes, and fish are evidently harbored at the park.

The park is also home to the giant sequoia trees that can grow up to 300 feet tall and are the largest existing things in the world. Although millions of people annually visit Yosemite for fishing, skiing, hiking, and camping expeditions, it is sad to note that many people have not visited the park despite living near the park. I live in the Central Valley where I can bear witness to this unfortunate fact that most who were born and raised here have never ever visited the park. It is in this view that I would like to encourage people living in the area and the world at large into visiting Yosemite on the following ecological facts which brings out the park’s serenity.

I. Flora and Fauna

For first time visitors, you will be deeply impressed with the park’s colossal granite cliffs of El Capitan, the domes of Yosemite Valley, Tenaya Canyon, and the incredible stylish waterfalls. It’s also hard to miss the soaring peaks above Tuolumne Meadows despite Yosemite being predominantly covered by a forest green landscape (Swedo 18-25). One also can’t help noticing the changing natural scene on different elevations while driving up the highways 41, 120, or 140 (Schaffer 17).  This elevation changes are noticeably seen in the tree species, grasses, wild flowers, but shrubs, and animals. The allotment of species in this park is variably influenced by climate, topography, fire, soil, and also other species. Yosemite is home to more than 300 species of vertebrate animals in which 85 of these are mainly native mammals, and its also habitat to a rare species of bats, therefore a good location for educational tours.

II. Geology

One cannot also miss the park’s rocky terrain which is a historical result of a volcanic reaction that caused the encroachment of overlying rocks by molten granite. This also resulted to the formation of the renowned Yosemite Valley which is arguably world’s most spectacular phenomenon (Schaffer 42). Yosemite is also where you will find the well-known Tahoe and Tioga glaciers which is a result of the glaciation process that began in earnest by 2 million years ago, and I do encourage this audience to see these vastly talked-about Valleys and glaciers in the whole world.

III. Human History

Above all, this park will take us all back to the rich human history that this country posses. It is home to the Homo sapiens who are the indigenous inhabitants of the Yosemite Valley (Schaffer 24).  One will learn about the Ahwahnechee tribe and culture, and its people who wandered the Yosemite landscape in search of food, trade and tribal interactions. The park is affluent in the Indians history and culture including other nearby plant communities.

 

Conclusion

In conclusion, the Yosemite National Park not only brings out America’s natural beauty but it also represents other cultures and world observable facts that are only a few miles away. Its natural tranquility is excellent for social togetherness and expedition while also serving the sole purpose of appreciation of culture, natural beauty and history. So I do urge this audience to spare their time and take a visit to the Yosemite Natural Park where it’s best suited for experience, energy, time, and personal preferences, while its serenity exemplifies the true meaning of nature.

Introduction

Digital communication between various computers is only possible by use of protocols, which are a set of standard rule that determine how data is to be transmitted in a network modern. With the need to establish a universal and interoperable communication platform, the International Organization for Standardization (OSI) established the Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) Reference Model; that was developed with the aim of establishing a universal digital communications platform. The layered approach deployed in OSI model plays an integral role in facilitating the implementation of security of network communications. In addition, the OSI reference model serves as a theoretical model that explains how network protocols are required to function. An important aspect of the OSI model is that its functionality significantly depends on the layered approach with each layer having a specific task in order to facilitate digital data exchange in a network. This essay outlines the specific tasks of the layers of the OSI model in facilitating data communication between computers (Christos, 2007).

Communication between the adjacent layers in the OSI reference model is facilitated through encapsulation, which refers to the adding of header to the data as it travels down from the topmost layer to the bottom most layer. On the receiving end, de-encapsulation takes place and entails the removal of header information from the data as it moves from the bottommost layers to the topmost layer. The OSI reference model is divided into seven layers, with each having a distinct functionality to facilitate data exchange in a network (Christos, 2007). The following diagram lists the OSI layers and their respective data names.

Layer name	Layer number	Data names
Application	Layer 7	Data stream
Presentation	Layer 6	Data stream
Session	Layer 5	Data stream
Transport	Layer 4	Segment/ Datagram
Network	Layer 3	Packet
Data Link	Layer 2	Frame
Physical	Layer 1	Bits

Source: Behrouz, F. (2001). Data communications and Networking. New York: Mc Graw Hill. Page 56.

The physical layer

This is the first layer of the OSI model and performs the conversion of frames to bits in order to foster data transmission over the network medium. On the receiving end, the physical layer converts the bits into frames so that they are used by the Data Link layer. The physical layer comprises of various device drivers, which determine the protocols to be used in the transmission and reception of data in form of bits. Some of the elements found in the physical layer include interface standards, electrical characteristics of the transmitting medium and a number of protocols. Using the device drivers and interface standards, layer 1 manages much of the throughput rates for the network hardware, ensures there is synchronization between analogue and digital signals, manages the noise levels and the mode of data transmission over the physical hardware, such as digital, analog or use of light pulses. Some of the network devices found in the physical layer includes repeaters, Network Interface Cards, signal amplifiers and hubs; these devices perform most of the hardware-based activities on the communication system (Behrouz, 2001).

The Data Link Layer

The fundamental function of the data link layer is to convert the data packets from the network layer into the appropriate format for transmission. The required format for transmission depends on the implemented hardware and technology in the computer network such as Ethernet, token ring, and Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM). The protocols used in the data link layer depend on the implemented technology responsible for transforming the data packets into formatted frames, after which they are delivered into the physical layer for transmission. Some of the protocols found in the data link layer include Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP), Point-to- Point protocol, Address Resolution Protocol and Serial Line Internet Protocol (Frye, 2007). In the data link layer, the hardware source and destination addresses are added to the data frames. The hardware address is usually in the form of Media Access Control (MAC) address that is 48-bit address. Some of the hardware devices found in layer 2 of the OSI model include switches and bridges, which have the capability to handle MAC-based traffic routing

 Effective stress management results to various benefits not only to the individual well being but also to the society at large. However, many Individuals do not effectively manage stress until the conditions worsens. Adopting stress relaxing practices repels the negative outcomes of stress and at the same time results to positive aspects such as enhanced productivity, peace of mind and overall health in the long run (Lehrer et al, 2007).  During periods of stress, the body produces hormones such as adrenaline which prepares the body for fight and flight. After the incidence however, the body should relax but that is not always the case since the stressing situations arise day by day due to the modern lifestyle. Hence, stress hormones are continuously released by the body. Since the hormones are catabolic, they consume the stored energy which, would otherwise be utilized for normal growth and development by the cells (Lehrer et al, 2007).

As a result, effective ways of copping with stress comes in handy in eradicating stress hormones, which relaxes the body due to production of anti-stress hormones or endorphins, which increases the overall well being of an individual. Some of the way to achieve this is through visualization, journaling, progressive muscle relaxation (PMR), breathing exercises, guided imagery and meditative techniques. These practices aid in attainment of the alpha state, which may be referred to as self-hypnosis. The procedures curb the release of stress hormones (Lehrer et al, 2007).

Stress management declines the probability of heart patient to encounter a cardiac episode. Besides, it helps in cost savings as financial costs incurred by those individuals who engage in stress management is much lower as compared to those who do not. These benefits are long-term resulting to sustainable financial savings. Stress programs allow the patient to recognize physical, emotional, behavioral as well as cognitive outcomes of stress and positively respond towards them. It could be managed though enough sleep, right eating habits and regular physical exercises, listening to relaxing music, laughing and regular sex (Murphy & Schoenborn, 1993).

Excess stress may be detrimental to health since it causes headaches, improper digestion, heart illnesses, hypertension and stroke, which would be absent if stress management was practiced. Stress relieving improves health, which increase productivity and allows one to become organized and positively participate in the building of the society (Lehrer et al, 2007).

Additionally, stress management comes with a strong immune system to be able to fight against pathogens. Chronic stress destroys the immune system, which adversely affect an individual’s well being and therefore, it should be eliminated. Moreover, stress leads to major depression and in managing it, one is able to assess the signs of depression and therefore, prevent it from happening. Such aspects aid one to gain necessary skills in handling stressful scenarios. Stress management benefits the society in that individuals don’t have to boycott working or undergo workers’ compensation due to stress related disorders. One becomes more efficient, acquires positive attitude and therefore, more performance. Health wise, related symptoms decline, one gets enough sleep, less anxious, less use of medication, physiological relaxation and enhanced self-esteem (Murphy & Schoenborn, 1993).

Long term stress reduces the capacity to perform and attain maximum productivity at school and at the workplace, thus it should not be ignored. Besides, apart from affecting an individual’s well being it also determines the way one interacts with the environment and the society at large. One should not only determine the cause of stress but also have a stress journal, which is crucial to evaluate the degree of stress and its effects. This helps one to plan strategies to manage stress and regain control in life. One is also able to handle emotions for overall emotional wellbeing (Murphy & Schoenborn, 1993).

Purpose

The main objective of this Standard Operation procedure is to develop a safe and systematic practice for collecting and analyzing samples of toxic wastewater from industries in order to determine the level of toxicity. The parameters for toxicity are in accordance with the international environmental law and policies as stipulated by the Center for International Environmental Law (CIEL). The procedures serve to ascertain whether the levels of toxicity are within the allowable limits of the CIEL and the wastewater pretreatments agreements of the company.

Applicability

The practices highlighted in this SOP are pertinent to environmental inspectors who evaluate the compliance regulations of wastewater treatment by various manufacturing industries, water treatment, and sewerage services companies (Philippe, 2006). In addition, this SOP practices are helpful to environmental compliance managers of factories that release wastewater to the nearby water bodies.

Summary

The international environmental law requires that factories should comply with the policy of environmental conservation. The fundamental approach to ensuring this is through ensuring that toxic levels of wastewater released by the factories are kept at the minimum levels possible. Detailed Chemistry is done in order to assess the toxicity of the effluent water from the Wastewater Treatment plant of the factory. In order to facilitate the analysis of levels of toxicity of the wastewater, samples of the pretreated water released by the company are required. Water samples can be collected instantaneously or compositely. The devices used to collect the samples can be either automatic samplers or Sample Dip Poles. Automatic samplers collect the wastewater samples periodically after a predetermined duration of time. After sampling, the effluent sample is preserved in more sample containers for future references when need arises. The sample is transported to CIEL laboratories under iced conditions in order to determine the toxicity levels (Spellman, 2010). The test results are compared with the allowable levels as stipulated by CIEL in the international environmental law and policy (Kaul, 2002).

Definitions

1. Toxicity levels refer to the percentage of toxic compounds that makes the wastewater harmful to the environment and its inhabitants. Some of the parameters used to evaluate toxicity levels include (Spellman, 2010):
2.  Carbonaceous Biochemical Oxygen Demand (cBOD), which is the quantity of oxygen that aerobic microorganisms need in order to putrefy the organic matter found in the wastewater sample. The test results for cBOD describe the potential harm of the wastewater to the environment.
3. Escherichia Coli, whose presence denotes fecal contamination of the effluent water
4. Faecal Coliform, whose presence denotes human sewage contamination
5. Other parameters for describing toxicity levels include alkalinity, oil and grease scum, water hardness, and organic carbon levels are stated in the international environmental law and policies.
6. Center for International Environmental Law (CIEL) is an international organization based in Washington DC, and has the responsibility of ensuring that industries protect the environment in order to promote human health and protect the environment. The CIEL uses existing international laws to foster environmental protection.
7. Sampler refers to the environmental compliance inspector who has the responsibility of collecting wastewater samples for analysis and reporting the test results in accordance with the stipulated values under the International Environmental Laws and policies.
8. Detailed Chemistry refers to an in depth chemical analysis of the effluent with regard to the above parameters used to describe toxicity levels of the wastewater. Effluent in this case refers to the wastewater that the factory releases to the environment, which might have undergone treatment or not.
9. Factory refers to the specific industry that discharges wastewater to the environment directly or through a wastewater treatment plant.

Health and safety issues

Wastewater from factories is broadly categorized into sanitary wastewater and process wastewater. In some cases, it can be a combination of both sanitary and process wastewater.  Irrespective of the type of the wastewater, the sampler should treat all wastewater as if they contain a toxic compound until the time when the test results reveal otherwise. This toxic compound can cause human illness; therefore, the water samples should be handled with a lot of care (Spellman, 2010). The personnel in charge of collecting the wastewater samples should put on protective gloves, and the containers that hold the wastewater samples requires handling with adequate care (Spellman, 2010). The sampler should also put on other protective accessories such as waterproof safety boots that are steel-toed, protective headgear, eyeglasses, and earplugs in order to shield the sampler from environmental hazards. The working environment may change, and the sampler has to make sure that he ascertains the state of the working conditions before working. For example, slippery surfaces and edged working surfaces require testing prior to working.

Cautions

The sampler’s working environment is filled with various toxic chemicals, which may be present in the wastewater sample and those chemicals used in the preservation of the wastewater samples. For instance, Concentrated Sulfuric acid, Sodium Peroxide, and Strong Nitric acidare used in the preservation of the wastewater sample and cyanide samples. The three compounds are toxic and corrosive, implying that samplers have to handle them with great care. In addition, they should avoid skin contact with the above preservatives (Spellman, 2010).

In order to avoid contaminating the waste sample, the samplers should make sure that introduction of unnecessary contaminants to the wastewater samples are avoided at all costs. This is because the primary objective of wastewater sampling is to bring out the true state of the wastewater from the factories without compromise (Spellman, 2010).

Personnel Qualifications

The development of this SOP is meant to outline systematic procedures for Wastewater inspectors. All other personnel such as environmental compliance managers of factories, who may undertake the practices highlighted in this SOP must have the fundamental Wastewater Management Training and Wastewater Inspector Accreditation from NSF international. Another key skills requirement is basic expertise in conducting onsite inspections on wastewater treatment plants. In addition, the Certificate of Accreditation from NSF must be valid with a maximum duration of five years since the date of issuance. Technical expertise concerning health and environmental sciences is a significant requirement for personnel who will use this SOP to sample wastewater from factories (Philippe, 2006).

Additional training requirements for this SOP include six hours refresher training on sampling techniques, and on-the-job training concerning environmental ethics and ethical code of conduct associated with reporting cases involving violation of environmental laws.