Author: chris

The phenomenon  that is prostitution has for a long time been a controversial issue in philosophical arguments. Defined as the act of engaging in sex for commercial ends, its main paradigm is understood as a case of a woman engaging in paid sexual intercourse with a man, other than her husband. Thus, the major distinguishing characteristic of prostitution is the commercialization of sex.
Nonetheless, the philosophical debate on prostitution is its rightness or wrongness. On the one hand is the moralistic position that maintains that it is wrong as a unique manifestation of adultery. This viewpoint is informed by religious principles such as the Christian Ten Commandments in which adultery is prohibited as a sin. On the other hand is the ‘consenting adults theorization,’ which argues that “sex acts for hire, between consenting adults, are perfectly moral in and of themselves, so long as they are not performed in public, or anywhere it might scare the horses,’ and that “the exchange of money doesn’t change anything” (Perry 2005). This approach to the justification of an immoral act is widely seen as a philosophical rationalization which has had the impact of encouraging abortion, contraception and now advocating for the constitutional recognition pf prostitution. Indeed, the Fourth Amendment in the US constitution in regard to the right of privacy is being used as a platform upon which prostitution is given afforded a decent face in society.
The argument hinges on the famous phrase of ‘the right to be let alone,’ with the assertion that “consenting adults should be allowed to perform any sexual acts they desire within the privacy of their own homes” (Taylor 2002). It further borrows from John Stuart Mill’s utilitarian principle, which defends the individual’s right to absolute freedom and the pursuit of happiness, and as they please with their bodies and mind, provided it does not cause any third party harm (Mill 93). In America, prostitution has literally seduced its way into the constitutional provisions of the Declaration of Independence, which protects the freedom of individuals to seek and enjoy happiness. If sex satisfies the lust desires of man, however banal they might be, then for the sex worker prostitution is definitely killing two birds with no stone at all!
The religious moralists object this materialistic philosophizing, by pointing out that whatever the legal or rational justification accorded prostitution, the fact remains that it still portrays social decadency and the corruption of moral norms. Saint Augustine notes that it transforms “husbands into adulterers, wives into harlots, bridal chambers into brothels and fathers-in-law into pimps,” while Pope John Paul II observed that “take away from love the fullness of self surrender, the completeness of personal commitment, and what remains will be a total denial and negation of love……and this subtraction, taken to its conclusion, leads to what we call prostitution” (Taylor 2002). According to Christian teachings, sex plays a sacred role in people’s lives and as such, it should be consummated in love and for the purpose of procreation within the institution of marriage.
Finally, the question which arises at this point is whether prostitution and marriage exhibit some commonness, especially when there are huge economic disparities between the wife and the husband, which results in the financial dependence of the former on the latter, just as the prostitute earns a living from her sexual services. However, Debra Satz at Stanford University’s department of philosophy explains that there is a clear line of distinction between the two. She notes that when sex is engaged with the casualness and business-like manner that portrays it as “a market transaction where one party sells a service for a price that another party is willing to pay” (Satz 2005), it undermines its sacred purpose as well as debases its value.

Statement of Facts
Jane is a fourteen year old Canadian, whose parents have been divorced for six years. Full custody rights were given to both parents by a Canadian court, but she has spent most of her time in Quebec with her father John. She visits her mother Ann in New York during the school holidays. During one such visit, she called her father requesting to return to Canada since she was not getting along well with her mother. However, her father refused, saying that she should just try to cope with the situation until the holiday is over.
One day her mother came from work and found a message left by Jane that she had gone to stay with her uncle Bill, who lives in California. On her way to stop her, Ann dies in a road accident. Bill intends to file for asylum on behalf of Jane with the Citizenship and Immigration Services department. Jane has expressed fears for her life, particularly with a separatist movement dedicated to the creation of an independent French Canadian state, in which his father is a member.
Legal Issues Relevant to the Case
Termination of custodianship rights- circumstances under which John’s custodian rights can be revoked.
Court jurisdiction over Jane- whether Jane’s case can be decided by an American court since she is not a citizen
US laws on immigration and naturalization- circumstances under which asylum can be given
Legal provisions intervention/adoption on child custody- legal provisions for Bill’s intervention
Summary
Jane’s case presents a complex legal scenario in which the law gives her parents both constitutional and natural rights over her, while at the same time limiting the extent to which they can exercise these rights, and the circumstances under which they are applicable. Secondly, she is Canadian but presently living in the US, which brings into play the issue of legal jurisdiction as provided by the US law. Thus, a legal proceeding to offer her asylum hinges on the provisions of the US laws on immigration and naturalization, which could either hinder or facilitate the asylum case intended by her uncle. She has not lived in the US for more than the six months necessary to put her under US laws: yet, the case is within US jurisdiction, since that is where she has sought help and is living at the moment. This notwithstanding, regardless, both the naturalization and immigration rules make her uncle’s case weak against her Canadian citizenship and the full custody rights possessed by her father. Additionally, custodian rights were determined in Canada during the divorce, making it easier for her father to demand an hearing in the same court. Nonetheless, Bill can only file a case with the US Citizenship and Immigration Services Department on grounds of Jane’s best interests, which must be proven by sufficient evidence that her life will be threatened if allowed to return to Canada.
Analysis of Facts and Issues
The US common statutory law provides that biological parents have absolute rights regarding the upbringing and residence of the child. Effectively, John, Jane’s father, will prevail against Bill’s intervention in the case since he is only a relative. The fact that he is 21 years old further tilts the odds against his chances of successfully filing a case for asylum on her behalf, given the fact that her father is capable of taking care of her, and she is not under any threat- at least not one that can be immediately verified, since the court may not rely on claims against the Canadian separatist movement. Under the “ponderance of evidence clause,” Bill must prove beyond any reasonable doubt that indeed the separatist movement poses a serious danger Jane if she were to return to Canada, especially on the claims of victimizing her for propaganda purposes. On this score, the involvement of her father in the movement makes a strong case for asylum. Additionally, the movement’s agenda, which is the creation of an independent French Canadian state, denies John the provisions of Canadian laws which apply to Jane. Since she is not involved in the movement, and she has expressed her sentiments against the movement, makes her free from the influence of her father pertaining to her citizenship. The separatist movement is clearly against the constitution of Canada, and it is accurate, therefore, for the court to interpret this as a denouncement of Canadian citizenship by its members. As such, it is outside John’s legal rights to force Jane into the movement. However, this is a probable, but equally possible eventuality, whose reality Bill must demonstrate and substantiate to strengthen his case.
In most US states, the criteria in determining custody cases is to allowing courts to “modify custody when the circumstances of the custodial parent or of the children- and not of the non-custodial parent- have changed” (Hill and Hill 2005). In this case, John’s circumstances have changed significantly: besides working for a movement that undermines Canadian laws under which custody was awarded, he is widowed, and therefore very likely that he will not sufficiently provide for Jane’s rights.
Another legal issue is the history of Jane’s life with both her parents. There have never been cases of abuse by either parent. Accordingly, there is reason for the court to assume that his father will become abusive in future. During the divorce, both parents were given equal custody rights. At the death of her mother, all custody rights were automatically transferred to his father. In this case, Bill’s strategy is to prove before the court that John is unable to satisfactorily provide for Jane, by demonstrating from his (John) past behavior and acts in relation to Jane’s welfare. One implicating incidence is his outright dismissal of Jane’s concerns when she contacted him with a request to return to Canada because she was not getting along well with her mother. His response that she should “try to get along with her mother and remain in New York until the end of her school break as usual” is a clear demonstration of parental negligence. In fact, negligence of a child’s welfare is one condition under the US law in which child custodianship can be terminated and in its place, guardianship rights given to a relative. In this case, Bill is the immediate closest of kin available, and therefore justified in acting as an “intervenor” (Carper et al, 2007) in Jane’s best interests. If he can prove John’s negligence, the court will be inclined to assume it will happen in future and effectively terminate his custody and award it to him.
On the other hand, Bill himself must prove his ability to provide for Jane, both emotionally and financially. The former factor- emotional support seems to be a riding factor in Jane’s decision to run away, since she stated in her message that “she hated both of her parents and believed that neither of them cared about her at all.” In addition, it has been noted that there has been growing tension between Jane and her parents in the past two years, suggesting a deteriorating trend in their relationship. This is inferred from the fact that for this period of time, “she increasingly became argumentative with and emotionally distant from both parents.” The US case law determines cases from proven evidence and previous rulings related to the case. Parental attachment is one factor that determines custody rights, in an attempt to avoid severing a child from a parent figure to whom she/he is emotionally attached. The argument in favor of this approach is that “the rupture is too difficult to overcome and that children suffer from imperfect child custody laws” (Hill and Hill, 2005). However, whatever attachment that was there between Jane and her father has been weathered down over the past two years of their emotionally strained relationship, meaning that she will not suffer psychologically if she is separated from him.
Conclusion and Recommendations
A common pattern emerging in this case is the issue of Jane’s needs- in legal parlance defined as ‘her best interests,’ which his father is evidently either unable or unwilling to fulfill. Despite the fact that there are abuse incidences by her father, it can be assumed that the circumstances of his father and his acts make him unreliable to take care of Jane. His involvement with a separatist movement compromises Jane’s Canadian citizenship, while the death of her mother calls for a review of the custodian rights. Similarly, his acts of negligence demonstrate his uncaring attitude in regard to Jane’s welfare. Most importantly, however, the threat posed by the separatist movement, if proven to be real, provides sufficient grounds for Bill to seek asylum on her behalf. Conclusively, in view of these facts, and on the strengths thereof in relation to case and federal statutory law, Bill has enough legal grounds to file for Jane’s asylum with the Citizenship and Immigration Services department.

America’s strategy in managing world affairs and international relations reflect a complex web of short-lived alliances, manipulation, calculated diplomacy and when circumstances permit, arrogant military aggression. However, these strategies are not played out simultaneously against one target, but rather measured out discriminately, each in the measure proportionate with the enormity of the issue at hand. As the world’s Super Power, the US is faced with a host of political, economical and military milestones that challenge its supremacy in world affairs. Most overwhelming is the fact that these challenges are manifested on the international scene, which limits the amount of influence it can exert on sovereign states to promote her agenda. Before the US involvement in Afghanistan, President Jimmy Carter’s security adviser stated that “An arc of crisis stretches along the shores of the Indian Ocean, with fragile social and political structures in a region of vital importance to us threatened with fragmentation. The resulting political chaos could well be filled by elements hostile to our values and sympathetic to our adversaries” (Matt, 2009). Regardless, the US has repeatedly shown that nothing can stand on its way to maintain the status quo, where it stands at the center of things. The grand plan to continued dominance is the desire to defeat any group of individuals or nations that threaten its supremacy, and the universal recognition of that fact.
The plot is very simple, yet equally cleverly and cunningly outlined to get the mission accomplished. In warming up to a well planned and calculated foreign military intervention “the U.S. often portrays itself as a neutral peacekeeper, with nothing but the purest humanitarian motives. After deploying forces in a country, however, it quickly divides the country or region into “friends” and “foes,” and takes one side against another” (Grossman 2010). First rule: know thy enemies- which America really does. Then, if your enemy number one is the enemy of your enemy number two, then make friends with either. After helping one to eliminate the other, remember thy enemy and your enmity-which America did. Finally, you have got only one exhausted, weary enemy to easily thrash. It is the reluctance to swiftly carry out this last part, the thrashing of the last enemy when he is most exhausted and vulnerable, which reveals the ingenuity of the US- a grand design to keep the game going.
Now, that sounds like the very character of Batman and Joker, the hero and villain characters, respectively, in the film The Dark Knight (2008). Joker (read Osama bin Laden) is a member of an underground mafia gang (al Qaeda, Talban, Alshaabab etc) that for a long time had been terrorizing the town of Gotham. Talk of President Bush’s ‘axis of evil’ that threatens the whole of humanity. September 11 jolts into mind, with its blood chilling horrors. Presently, he (Joker) and his band of thugs have just robbed a bank, and helped themselves with bundles of dollars. However, Joker intends to pocket everything. The problem is, he cannot single handedly deal with all of his enemy-friends. But there is nothing that a cunning mind won’t fix: he deceives them to kill each other until he remained with only one, whom he killed himself. Then Batman gets into the job of nabbing the villain. He kills all the bad guys he encounters on the way, but when he gets on to the Joker, he spares his life and leaves him to the SWAT team.
The similarity between the plot in The Dark Knight and the US’s involvement in Afghanistan is not only striking, but also captures the Washington’s game plan in dealing with world affairs. If Batman spared the Joker so as to justify his continued Batman hero role, then Washington desperately needs an excuse good enough to justify their continued invasions and occupations in the Middle East. It is where the alleged terrorists hide. To recall President Bush’s words once again, both the terrorist and his friends are agents of the devil, and therefore none should be spared. Thus, when CIA deduced that Osama is hibernating somewhere in the rugged terrains of the Afghanistan desert after bringing down the World Trade Center and killing thousands of Americans, the US soldiers crushed into Kabul like tornadoes. This is despite the fact that since the late 1970s up to 9/11, Kabul was one of the US’s peephole into the intrigues of the Middle East. By highlighting the similarity between the US involvement in Afghanistan since 1980 and the actions of the characters of Joker and Batman in the film The Dark Knight, the paper aims to discuss America’s approach to international relations and world affairs.
If the world is a theater for the good versus bad boys’ face-off, then the US is the super-hero savior upon which the survival of the rest of the world rests. Indeed, no any other country in history, since the civilization of mankind into organized societies and nations, has ever fought for a cause with the fervency, fierceness and military aggression displayed by the US in the Bush pushed ‘War on Terror’ campaign. Its sprit of commitment and devotion- which has remained steadfast even in the face of horrifying casualties since Vietnam, The Gulf War and presently, the continuing mayhem in Iraqi, Afghanistan; and a brewing animosity with Tehran, is perhaps only rivaled by the Roman Church’s Holy Crusades of the 12th and 13th centuries. In both contexts, there is a common thread of a spirited and ‘armed’ determination, literally speaking, to completely thrash out an identified enemy. If Rome hated the Muslims with the wrath of God as to make the Holy See lead chariots of warriors to the East, then the US’s aggression on the Middle East underlies similar sentiments. It was former President Bush himself who labeled some of these ‘bad-guys’ nations the ‘axis of evil,’ with a vehement promise to wipe out the devil and his hosts. It could have easily been dismissed as an over-emphasized official, but nonetheless personal expression of a fanatical hatred of terrorism in particular, and the veiled abhorrence of the Arab world in general. However, that is hardly the case: when President Obama, widely thought of as a sympathizer of the Middle East dispatched another battalion to Kabul, it became very apparent that Bush was not speaking for himself- or dancing to the tune of Dad intent on winding up unfinished business he initiated while in office, as some might have speculated. On the other hand, it implies an institutionalized and romanticized political ideology that is generally antagonistic of the Arab world, and which now has been ingrained to the American public psych.
Nonetheless, what is striking is not the full-gear style of the US’s military intervention on international affairs- that has been a very common and habitual, typical American response to anything that calls for a gun muzzle; it doesn’t surprise anyone with a sketch of history. Rather, it is the ensuing tangle of subplots and secret schemes that emerge after the real business which raises suspicious eyebrows, and often cynical criticism. If not anything, the behind-the scenes dealings and shifting of alliances- which at casual glance can pass for ingenuous military tactics were it not for the involvement of political meddling and self contradictions- portray the US’s cunning and trickster antics in world affairs. For starters, and very specific to the theme of this discussion, America was the messianic hero that backed the anti-communist rebels rising against the pro-Soviet government of President Babrak Karmal. It is reported that by 1983, when the Soviet troops in Afghanistan had soared to about 100 000, “the CIA was purchasing assault rifles, grenade launchers, mines, and SA-7 light antiaircraft weapons, totaling 10,000 tons to support the anti-communist guerrilla forces, jointly called the ‘mujahidin’- Islamic warriors” (Huang, 2001). At the same time, it was the godfather figure that raised and nurtured the world’s number one terrorist, and by implication the US’s most sought after enemy, Osama bin Laden. In fact, political analysts have pointed out that “U.S. policy toward Afghanistan, Russia and the region during the 1980s helped, at least indirectly, nurture the growth of anti-American and fundamentalist forces now controlling Kabul, and indeed, even some of the terrorists now being sought by the United States for the Sept. 11 attacks against New York and Washington” (Huang, 2001). Eventually, after using Osama’s hand to hit at the Soviets, somebody at CIA must have realized that the guy was a terrorist! From then onwards, till today, he is the villain who Washington is so much chagrined about, so much so that a generous bounty was put on his head. Ironical, isn’t it? But then, as noted before, the irony part goes as far America’s self contradiction and shifting of alliances in international relations is concerned. Beyond that, history tells a different story: that of manipulation, scheming and trickery to promote US interests.

Culture is an inherent part of social life, as it defines the way in which people think, act and respond to situations. Material culture entails the physical objects that symbolize a people’s way of life. For instance, camels may signify a nomadic way of life, as portrayed in Exiled, Bjorn Episode 4. Nonmaterial culture, on the other hand, is the set of values and ideas that govern people’s social and private lives. They include the norms, beliefs, value systems, language, mores and folklores.
Different people have different cultures, most of which conflict in terms of their material and nonmaterial aspects. In the TV program “Exiled,” Bjorn, Full Episode 4, there is an apparent clash between the Western and Arabic cultures, as portrayed by the characters of Bjorn and Said respectively. As demonstrated in the following discussion, the former leans more towards materialism, while the latter tends to strike a balance between material and nonmaterial aspects of culture.
Culture shock
Bjorn is sent off by his parents to Morocco, a desert country in North Africa as a way of teaching him the importance of hard work and responsibility. Coming from the American upper class society, Bjorn is given to the easy life of affluence and luxury. Consequently, his world outlook is defined by materialistic culture he comes from. It is a world of opulence: mansions, luxury and air conditioned cars and rich foods. Upon his arrival in Morocco, he is appalled by what Said calls a home: a dilapidated building that, properly speaking, is more of a museum than a home. It has a shared bathroom and a stinking toilet, Said sleeps on a mat on the floor, and the family eats pigeons for beef, in addition to the fact that they cannot afford cooking gas, and instead uses camel dung. It is a big cry from the luxury back at home.
Symbols
As noted before, symbols are part of the material objects that define a people’s way of life. In the TV program, sleeping on a mat is reflective of Said’s religion, Islam. The mat is an important object in the Islamic way of worship and praying. Likewise, camels represent the Arab world’s nomadic lifestyle and their adaptation to their desert environment. Of similar significance are the burbur clothes, sandals and scarf offered to Bjorn by his host. In stark contrast, Bjorn’s home and its luxuries; his bed, cars and flashy clothes mirror the western lifestyle that is captured in the American Dream. It portrays the western emphasis on material success, and the sense of security it offers.
Language
Language provides a group’s medium of communication. However, language contains symbols that reveal the cultural background of the speakers. Bjorn’s reference to fast air- conditioned cars reflect a culture of affluence, laziness and impatience- the English expression “Time is money” comes to mind in explaining Bjorn’s shock at the ‘tiring,’ literally speaking, thought of riding a bicycle for three hours when a car can have the job done in fifteen minutes.
Values
Values represent a society’s system of codes that govern private and social behavior. In Said’s culture, girl-boy relationships are restricted and marked with mutual respect. Bjorn is amazed that Said does not have a girlfriend. His understanding of leisure is limited to partying with friends and dating. In Said’s world, leisure is spent on dancing and singing, which emphasizes the high regard that the Moroccans’ have of their tradition. To Bjorn, nobody is concerned about traditions, for there is none in the first place.
Beliefs
Beliefs represent people’s convictions about the world and life in general. Bjorn believes that parents are the sole breadwinners. In fact, he bluntly told his parents that they work and therefore should just give him money- something he believes they naturally owe him. On the contrary, Said is convinced that one must work in order to eat, as well as provide for his kin. This aspect serves to further illustrate the individualistic nature of the Western world as compared to the communal approach taken by Said’s people. The organization of the American nuclear family stems from this tendency to narrow interests to the individual, as opposed to the extended family of Said. Actually, Bjorn stated it more clearly when he asked Said regarding clothes: “Can’t I dress in an individual way, just as I want?”
Norms
Norms are the set of rules and principles that dictate social life. In Said’s culture, male members have the responsibility of feeding their families, such as hen he collects camel dung for cooking, hunts pigeons for food and collects coal to earn money. Bjorn, on the other hand, waits for Dad and Mom to sweat it out for him.
Mores
Mores are codes for appropriate behavior towards other members of society. In Bjorn’s western culture, there is no respect for one’s parents, since he can argue with them over what he considers their duty to give him money. On the other hand, there is a strong sense of respect for the elderly is portrayed by Said when he introduces Bjorn to his family members. Not surprisingly, there were no incidences of arguments between Said and his parents or elder brother, as each member kept to within his bounds of duty.
Folkways
Folkways represent a people’s way of passing the elements of culture from one generation to another. In Said’s culture, this is done through dancing and singing. In Bjorn’s culture, there is no definite medium of cultural transmission. However, dating and partying during leisure time can be said to represent the western world’s socializing arena in which social values are shared and learned.
Subculture
Subculture is the set of values shared among a group within a larger group. For instance, Bjorn and his 16-yers friends have a common subculture, namely the belief that life is all about partying, hiking, gifts and dating, and that their parents should provide for the fulfillment of these needs.
Cultural relativism
This is the belief (also a theory) that stipulates that no culture is inferior in relation to another, and that every culture is important and useful as long as it serves the needs of the people who conform to that culture. This is one of the themes in the Exiled, Bjorn Episode 4, as both Said’s and Bjorn’s cultures reflect the lifestyles of the respective societies in which they belong.
Cultural diffusion
This is the spreading of ideas across cultural boundaries, such that cultural values of one culture are absorbed into another through the socialization and interaction of members from both cultures. In the TV program under study, Bjorn’s adventure into Morocco shaped his attitude towards physical labor, something he initially resented. It also changed his regard for the value of money as he became more responsible in spending.
Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism is a narrow view of other cultures, whereby individuals regard theirs as superior to others. Actually it is the opposite of cultural relativism due to the objectivity of the latter and subjectivity of the former. Bjorn exhibits an ethnocentric view of the Moroccan culture on his first days, because he compared its reflection of poverty and backwardness (like collecting camel dung with bare hands) to the flashy American lifestyle.
In conclusion, Bjorn presents a culture that is founded on the deceptive American Dream, which promises a life of ease and luxury. The fact that it is an illusionary culture is portrayed by the lack of satisfaction of its members: however rich, Bjorn’s family is not the ideal one envisioned in the American dream, since nobody is satisfied with the status quo of things. He is never satisfied with money, and his parents are tired with is demands. When Said caught a desert bug and told it was just that, he (Bjorn) said it can’t be true, that Said was kidding (joking). But who is joking, really? The biggest joker is he who fails to se reality: the real desert bug, the importance of hard work and the hollowness of materialism. On the contrary, Said is the image of reality, the reflection of society’s daily struggles for survival.

Abstract

This is a research report on the constraints the organization has to face in implementing Information Systems Security. The elements of risks which are involved are highlighted in this study. Constraints are faced by the users of the organizations when this change is implemented. The proactive and reactive security measures are discussed which tends to show the importance and utmost need to implement tight security regarding the information that is being processed in the environment of the organization. The importance of physical security measures is also highly vital. Though the organization may have to heavily invest in their Information Systems security department for the purpose of maintaining the security level of the organization, this investment may prove to be very much beneficial in the long term life cycle of the organization.

Organizational constraints of Information Systems security
Introduction
In order to ensure the security of their data, various organizations and institutions are currently putting up necessary security measures by implementing Information systems security. The importance of information security considerations has risen in the past few years due expanded use of the Internet by institutions, business organizations and individuals on one hand and by criminals and abusers on the other hand (Peltier, 2002). There are various hackers who are dependent on breaching the security which are linked to the physical security elements so that they can make their attempt to trespass into the confidential information of the organization. The hackers tend to use the various social engineering methods to conduct their attempts to breaching of security. At times they pose themselves as the personnel who have come for delivery and behind this they have the intentions of getting the access to the lapses of security. “A security constrain represents a constraint that is related to that security system or organization. By definition, a constraint can be defined as a restriction related to security issues such as privacy, integrity, confidentiality, integrity or availability” (Edcine, 2003).
It is an observed phenomenon that with time the number of malicious hackers is growing tremendously over time, the policies for regulatory issues are also being worked upon very intensively, and the issues related to Information Systems security in organizations are becoming more critical with each day passing by. Organizations have started to develop security plans and assessments for their organization.
When we talk about information security breaches, we look at various important aspects and factors that can amount to a security breach. In the analysis of information security breaches we have to define these terms:
Threat
This is the means by which a given computer system attack can occur. A threat depends on the existence of a particular vulnerability within the system or organization. Threat assessment tends to look at prudent practices and measures to be carried out in order to secure a system and its vital information. Threat assessment can be carried through simulated practice attacks so as to know threat outlines and come up with counter measures against these threats. In some scenarios, threat assessment focuses on the attacker’s potential to carry out an attack and the resources which could be used to execute an assault. These scenarios could be countered by ensuring that the cost of a successful attack overwhelms the cost and resources required to carry out an attack, thus making attacks costly.
Threat assessment is usually carried out in order to come up with security policies that guide on information; the implementation of these policies will be significant in securing information or resources.
Vulnerability
This can be defined as security faults or errors within a system that could lead to a successful attack. The assessment of vulnerabilities should be done on an on-going basis since errors either human or system occurs on a regular basis. Vulnerability assessment also helps the organization come up with security policies on how to respond to new treats and maintain security. Within an organization vulnerabilities are not technology specific and due to the ever increasing pace of technology, new vulnerabilities such as hacking and cracking are on the rise. Employees have to be trained on prudent counter measures to prevent vulnerabilities that might lead to a successful attack.
Risk
It is the probability of a targeted attack being successful. It can also be defined as the extent of exposure to a given threat. Risk assessments are usually conducted to determine the immediate security measures to be undertaken; they are time constraint and have to be conducted immediately. In risk assessment we look at potential security breaches and important issues to be addressed, such as the cost of a successful attack and probability of an attack. Risk assessment helps an organization to budget on security costs and to prioritize security policies to be implemented as quickly as possible.
Impact
When a security breach occurs or when a successful attack has been carried out against an organization, we look at the impact of the attack. Impact refers to cost, damage and other effects on the organization as a result of information access without permission; this weakens the aspect of trust. “Trust of an actor indicates that an actor, truster, believes that another actor, trustee, will not misuse the permission to achieve a goal execute a task or access a resource” (Swatman M. C. 2002). When we are assessing cost impacts, we have to look at business lost due to breached resources; cost of replacing stolen resources or even cost of implementing security measures and recovery of lost data and resources. Impact assessment is very critical since it enables an organization to plan on security that must be put in place; security policy to be adopted and responsible parties for the adoption of the set security measures.

Contracts are given to the security companies to install their security system applications in the organization so that the confidential information remains protected at all times and no breaching of rules and regulations related with the information processing environment occurs in the organization.
The data integration present in organizations involves dealing with various confidential financial information, with secret records of the customer such as their credit card details, and also all their information which is used for the purpose of transaction. The question of maintaining Information Systems security is a quite a debatable issue and till date it remains unanswered of how to protect organizations from the hackers who intrude into the confidential information of the customers (Dhillon 2007).
There are many fields where having high Information Systems security is extremely important such as having tight security in the integration of data when the warehousing of data is taking place, security is required in the migration of data and in all various projects that are dealing with synchronization.
For an effective security plan to be established it is necessary for the security managers to set the priorities on a logical basis by asking various questions and conduct the evaluation accordingly of the security plan (Barr 2010). Having the correct assessments for the security plans may tend to produce better results for the organization. The security of the information that the organization will receive will be highly beneficial for the organization in the long run.
The effective physical security measures are meant to reduce the risk of any security breach by hackers. The main step to be implemented is to allow only authorized personnel into entering the area where high Information Systems security confidential information is present.
The information present physically in the IT structure must be highly protected so that the breaches can be prevented in the organization premises. If the physical security measures and practices implemented are effective then they can add on to the long term effective work processes in the organization. The information plan of the security cannot be ignored under any circumstance (Denning 1990).
There are many organizations present worldwide who tend to spend millions of dollars in trying to get the most authenticated security for their computer system networks. All the latest gadgets related to security are bought by these organizations and then implemented for the purpose of maintaining effective security measures in the organization. All possible firewalls are put in the systems so that every user cannot get the access to the confidential information related to IT security. All possible measures are conducted by the organizations for the prevention of vulnerable security breaches (Denning 1990).
The implementation of Information Systems security in the organizations is a very important aspect. With the increase rate of frauds and cyber crimes over the internet, it is highly recommended that organizations should protect all the information of their organization implementing Information systems security despite the constraints associated with this implementation. Among the major issues in the implementation of information systems security is the question of what constraints are associated with the implementation process. Therefore, the major research question here is; what are the major constraints in implementing information systems security in organizations.
Given this identified problem space, the overall research question of this dissertation is to identify the constraints associated with implementation information system security and how to deal with these constraints. To examine this research question, we should first recognize some of the major information security issues and the respective research contributions; and secondly, to examine the existing approaches for implementing information system security.

Implementation of Information systems security
There are four main types of elements which are essential in implementing the Information Systems security in the organizations. These components should be implemented in the inception stage of any project being conducted in the organization. The components that should be imposed in the organizations are as follows for the security of the data (Dhillon 2007):
1. Authentication
2. Authorization
3. Audit ability
4. Data protection

Living organisms constitute a machine-like automated system which controls the various chemical processes that enhance its functioning. Its anatomy comprises of different organs, with each single organ designated a unique life-enhancing role in all living organisms. The overall functioning of the living organism is determined by the condition of the organs that control its life processes, and a serious defect on one organ will result in a significant dysfunctional state of the whole system. In human beings, a defection or infection of a crucial organ can lead to the disruption of chemical balances in the body, which in turn could cause serious deteriorations in health, and eventually death. The liver particularly, is an important organ in the functioning of the human body, since it controls and regulates various life enhancing processes such as metabolism, excretion, respiration and osmoregulation. As such, an infection to the liver portends serious health consequences to the whole body. A common liver infection is inflammation, which destroys its cells and leads to liver failure. If the condition is not reversed earlier, it develops to a near-chronic condition, which in medical terms is referred to as hepatic encephalopathy. By referring to the case study of Mrs. Mary Green, the paper discusses the condition of liver failure in the human body, and its development to hepatic encephalopathy. Specifically, it details the pathophysiological characteristics that define liver dysfunction, typical signs and symptoms, its pharmacology, contextual analysis of Mrs. Green’s condition, and the effect of body mass index (BMI) on the pathophysiology of the condition.( Czaja, A. 2007)

Hepatic encephalophathy
It is also known as Portosystemtic encephalophathy. It is characterized by altered level of consciousness, coma and confusion that results from liver failure. It is called hepatic coma when in its advance stage and may lead to death.

Causes
It results from the accumulation of toxic substances in the blood stream that needs to be removed by the liver. Diagnosing hepatic encephalopathy requires an impaired liver fuction and blood tests for ammonia levels. Attacks of the disease are often precipitated by recurrent problems such as infections and constipation. Suppression in the production of toxic substance in the small intestines can reverse Hepatic encephalopathy. This is mainly done with the non –absorbable antibiotics or with laxative lactulose. Moreover, treatment of the underlying conditions can improve symptoms. In specific settings of acute liver failure, the onset of encephalopathy is likely to require kidney transplant. (Gines, P. 2005).
Symptoms
It is difficult to detect the mildest form of hepatic encephalopathy. However it can be demonstrated through neuropsychological testing. The main symptoms are mild confusion, forgetfulness and irritability. Severe symptoms of encephalopathy are characterized by inverted sleep-wake pattern, tremor, marked irritability, coordination difficulties and trouble writing. In more severe forms, it can lead to a worsened level of consciousness- from lethargy to samnolance and eventually to a coma. Jerking movements of the limbs can be observed in the initial stages but tend to disappear as somnolence worsens. At this stage, there is amnesia and disorientation, and in some circumstances uninhibited behavior may occur. Seizure and coma represents the advanced stage of the disease and often leads to death. (Shaffer, E. A. June 2009).
Treatment
Patients with severe encephalopathy stay at risky of obstruction of their airway as a result of reduced protective reflexes like the gag reflex. This can cause respiratory arrest. The patients should be nursed in an appropriate area such as the intensive care unit with the intubations of the airway. In cases of low consciousness, there is a high risk of aspiration pneumonia. In this circumstance, a nasogastric tube is inserted to allow safe administration of medicine and nutrients. Treatment of hepatic encephalophy heavily depends on the underlying causes (types A, B or C). If it develops an acute liver failure then, a liver transplant will be necessary from a specialist centre. (McLaughlin, R. N. Sep 22, 2006)

QZ 1 Liver Failure
As a major organ of the body, the liver plays a key role in the metabolism of substances and their excretion, synthesis of proteins, regulation of nutrients such as cholesterol, glucose and amino acids. The liver’s major cells are called hepatocytes, and they are responsible for the physiological functioning of the liver (Bullock, 2007). Damage to these cells or an inhibition of their functioning is the major cause of liver failure.
By definition, liver failure is a condition characterized by the inability of the liver to function normally, especially in controlling metabolic and synthetic body processes. There are two types of liver failure:
Acute liver failure is the development of hepatic encephalopathy, which is characterized by psychological and mental interruptions, such as confusion and getting into a coma, physiological disorders such as decreased rate of protein metabolism. A rapid deterioration in the functioning of liver causes coagulopathy (poor blood clotting) and the alteration of mental functioning. Acute liver failure is mainly caused by the effect of drug toxins on the liver, a process called hepatoxicity.
Chronic liver failure results from cirrhosis, which is usually caused by damage to the liver due to heavy drinking, metabolic disorders such as excess copper or iron in the body and hepatitis B or C. Additionally, the condition is hereditary and can be inherited through genetic transfer.
Pathophysiology of Liver Failure
Acute liver failure often results in cerebral edema, which in turn causes morbidity in patients or death. It affects the normal functioning of the brain, a condition known as intra-cranial hypertension (ICH). Impaired cellular functioning of the brain due to poor osmoregulation causes fluid imbalances in the brain cells, leading to an increased brain volume, and eventually a condition known as cytotoxic edema (Heidelbaugh, 2006). Similarly, cerebral edema can result can develop due to an accumulation of glutamine in the brain. Glutamine concentration in the brain’s astrocyte cells causes swelling and brain edema. Chemical imbalances in the brain due to liver failure increase the secretion of the enzyme glutamine synthetase, which detoxifies ammonia to glutamine through the process of amidation. In alcoholic patients, liver injuries induced by “viral and therapeutic drugs can be synergistic with alcohol toxicity and lead to chronic liver failure” (Schiff, et al, 2007, 875).
Another pathophysiological phenomenon of liver failure is an upsurge of intracranial blood level and blood circulation in the cerebrum due to poor cerebral auto-regulation. Liver failure leads to poor excretion of toxic substances from the brain, especially nitric acid which widens the brain’s blood vessels through vasodilation, resulting in high rate of blood flow. This condition interferes with brain functioning, which causes perceptional failure, resulting in consciousness alteration, in which the patient fails to recognize his environment accurately. At this stage, the condition of liver failure is hepatic, which is attributed to the condition of Mrs. Green after she failed to distinguish between a cup and a plate, or a chair from a table.
QZ 2 Signs and Symptoms of Liver Failure
Swelling in the abdomen and legs
The liver plays an important role in regulating body fluids through the process of osmoregulation. Infections that damage more than 75 percent of he liver’s cells causes a serious impairment in its functioning. As a result, body fluids, called ascites, seep out of the blood stream due to the liver’s failure to produce vital blood proteins. Low levels of fluids in the blood stream causes high salt concentration in the blood stream, which in turn causes the movement of fluids into the body tissues through the process of diffusion. The seepage of fluids into body tissues especially in the abdomen and legs is responsible for the development of edema. It is characterized by a protruding belly, swellings in the legs, arms and in some cases on the face.
In cases of chronic liver failure, fibrosis, which is a scarring of the liver as a result of damage to liver cells, develops. Cirrhosis develops when the fibrosis becomes advanced. A complication of cirrhosis in turn causes ascites- excessive body fluids that accumulate in the lower abdomen, also known as the peritoneal cavity. It causes a bulging of the abdomen, which often appears as a protrusion of the belly. The development of ascites is attributed to two factors. First, there is an increase in pressure in the vein carrying blood from the intestines, spleen and stomach to the liver, which causes portal hypertension. Secondly, low levels of blood albumin, a condition known as hypoalbuminemia, leads to imbalances of blood volume. In cirrhosis, the blood volume is greatly reduced as the liver cannot not sufficiently produce albumin. The combination of high portal hypertension and hypoalbuminemia causes fluid seepage into the tissues, the dilation of verices (veins in the esophagus) and the enlargement of the spleen, leading to general edema. Generally, these conditions develop due to the increase of pressure in the veins and the accumulation of fluid in blood vessels in the abdomen. Moreover, hypoalbuminemia can make the kidney to retain body fluids and salt, and cause peripheral edema, which is the swelling of the legs.

Bleeding and poor blood clotting
The liver is responsible for the production of essential blood clotting substances, such as fibrins and prothrombin, which are involved in coagulation. Liver failure prevents the production of these substances due to damage of involved cells. This is especially the case in cirrhosis related liver failure and in alcoholic patients. The deficiency of blood proteins in the body causes gum bleeding during brushing and frequent hemorrhage in bruises and the thrombosis, which hinders clotting. Due to advanced cirrhosis, the inflammation of the liver’s cellular cells causes serious internal hemorrhage (Jutabha, 2005). Hemorrhage into the abdomen is responsible for pain in the lower abdomen, and is often life threatening.

A major distinguishing characteristic of the civilized world is the recognition of human rights and the expanded conception of the idea of justice. These elements are enshrined in national constitutions, and afford all citizens the right to the access of resources and opportunities. However, a recent development is the increasing concern for the rights of minor members, especially children. Traditionally, children were often ignored as insignificant members of society, largely due to their lack of active participation in major decisions that defined their future. As such, what they received and experienced, and the kind of life they led was decided for them either by their parents, senior members of the family and to some extent, the governing authority. Nonetheless, gradual shifts in social lifestyles and the organization of communal life led to a significant change of societal and institutional attitudes towards children. Western societies were the first to witness the era of the 18th century enlightenment movement, whose proponents argued for the rights of the individual as opposed to a collective prioritization of societal demands. National constitutions were amended to protect the rights of individuals, which in effect improved the plight of children as well. Additionally, the introduction of formal education furthered the agenda of children’s rights in national and international debates. The latter is more pronounced today, through the formation of organizations that promote the welfare of children, such the UN’s United Nations Children Fund (UNICEF).
This notwithstanding, however, the condition of children has not improved on a uniform pattern globally. There exists a wide gap between the wealthy West and the impoverished third world countries, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, Asia and some sections of Eastern Europe and Latin America. Of the Western nations, the United States ranks as the most advanced nation in the world in regards to the promotion and protection of children’s rights. Indeed, the value of children in the US today shames even the status of adults in the third world countries. The glaring and saddening implication of this fact is the pathetic condition of children living in the third world. In an environment where even the rights of adults are grossly compromised, it could only be left to the imagination how serious the situation is for unconsidered, uncared for and generally neglected children. By highlighting on the living conditions and opportunities offered to children in the US and Africa, the paper seeks to discuss the wide gap of inequality between children in the developed nations and those in the third world countries.
Africa is widely famed as the cradle of poverty, suffering, oppression and unending strife. From the war raged Horn of Africa that extends from hot zone Darfur, volatile Eritrea and warring, stateless Somali to the hunger stricken Zimbabwe, militia infested Northern Uganda and Eastern Congo, Africa conjures the perfect image of a grieving continent. However, the situation of children is not singularly jeopardized by wars and hunger alone: in addition to the gnawing pain of deprivation and the horrors of death, their condition is aggravated by the institutionalization of their suffering. The greatest threat is posed by the existence of militias who forcefully recruit underage children as fighters to sustain their guerrilla insurgence. This is often occasioned by violence, kidnapping and torture, which is usually unreported; on the rare occasions it is captured by a foreign reporter on BBC or Al Jazeera, nothing could be done. Thus, the value of children in the third world is not merely compromised, but properly speaking, almost nonexistent. In Southern Sudan particularly, the problem of child abuse is not only a matter of a situation that cannot be controlled by the government, but also accompanied with the most horrifying torture experiences: rape, sodomy, cannibalism and forced labor.
On the other hand, the US presents a perfect example of a highly civilized society that values all citizens regardless their age. It could be argued that the foundation of this human rights-conscious culture is rooted in the Declaration of Independence, which guarantees every American the right to the pursuit of happiness and personal fulfillment. These values are promoted by the American constitution, which has been widely touted as the best legal document ever made by man. it does not only recognize the rights of individuals, children and adults alike, but also ensures that they are offered unlimited opportunities to enhance personal advancement. To begin with, the allocation of national resources to children’s causes captures the high regard of children in the American society. For instance, education is offered free of charge by the government, ensuring that every American child has affordable access to quality education. America is one of the few nations of the world that invests heavily on their younger generations. It is home to most of the best educational institutions in the world, and the pace-setter in academic circles. The American Dream, whether real or illusionary is reflected in the quest to educate children and increase their potential to exploit opportunities and lead comfortable lives. On the contrary, the third world is forever mired in abject poverty and hunger, and as such, it is nearly impossible to guarantee every child affordable access to education. In any case, education in most third world countries is regarded as a secondary need to be satisfied after the more pressing need for food, security and shelter. Nonetheless, this does not imply that the priotized needs of food, shelter and security are met satisfactorily: malnutrition is at its worst in Africa. This is evidenced by the high reliance on relief food, poor child health and high rates of insecurity. The failure by families and governments to provide the most basic of human needs, therefore, indicates the low value that children command in third world countries. However, this should not be interpreted to mean that children are generally undervalued in poor countries, but rather reflect the inability of governments and families alike to meet their needs and provide opportunities that could improve their lives.
Perhaps a better exemplification of conscious negligence of children in third world countries is presented by the high prevalence of child labor (Bass 15). Africa is primarily an agriculture based economy. As the only means of subsistence, farm labor is crucial in ensuring food production. However, due to its limited technological knowledge base and low level of industrialization, labor is largely manual, and not mechanized as in most developed countries. The implication of this is that human labor is the primary factor of production, “fueled by high unemployment and low wages” (Schmitz, et al 154). Moreover, most African communities have historically valued children as a cheap source of labor, which partly explains the high birth rates. Thus, children are not valued for their sake, but for the cheap labor they provide. Ironically, this cultural attitude undermines their value instead of improving it. Effectively, they become tools of achieving communal labor needs. Indeed, child labor is unquestioned in Africa, since it is regarded as a norm to have children till the fields, collect firewood, fetch water from rivers and assist with most household chores.
In America, on the contrary, children are protected from any physical exertion that results from hard work. The American family unit is socially organized in such a way that children are not only integrated into the ideals of a model family, but also financially secure that children are spared the experience of sweating it out to put food on the table. The economic factor also comes into play in inheritance practices, since the African system is very discriminative against the girl-child (Kevane 126). Only sons get to inherit from their parents, while girls are not considered at all. Instead, they are regarded in terms of property, since they are usually married off to get dowry. Related to this practice is the reluctance by most parents to write wills for their children, since they are considered unqualified for automatic inheritance. This starkly contrasts with the American inheritance system, which highly values children.
Children in the US are further protected by a lifestyle culture that generally favors children. Family planning in America ensures that children are well-cared for, as opposed to Africa where families struggle to raise several children. Giving birth alone in the US is preceded with careful planning and saving for delivery, nursing and healthcare. Health insurance coverage and childcare which is popular in the US is nonexistent in Africa as in other poor continents. Similarly, the presence of many childcare centers in America ensures that children are given the best possible care in the absence of their parents. In Africa, however, children are left to the care of their older siblings, thereby promoting a vicious circle of child labor.
The American lifestyle is characterized by a high regard of leisure, especially for children. America is the biggest market of children’s toys, indicating the value attached to the happiness of children. They are even bought pets, something unimaginable in a third world setting. For instance, when the Obamas moved to the White House, it took considerable time to get a pet for Sasha and Malia. It is not that it really mattered in any therapeutic sense, so to speak, but implied a high concern for their health as well.
In conclusion, the value of children in the developed nations, particularly the US is far above that of children from the third world. The factors of culture, social institutions and government policies determine how children are regarded and cared for in both settings. Culture and tradition undermines the condition of children in poor countries, while a recognition of fundamental human rights promote the status of children in the developed world. This explains the inequalities seen in the way children are treated in the two contexts.

Black on the Block by Mary Pattillo examines the socio-economic and political aspects of class and race that define social homogeny and stratification. In a research study of the North Kenwood-Oakland neighborhood of Chicago’s inner city, Pattillo explores the influence of black consciousness in an attempt to create a save and economically stable haven for Americans of African descent, who felt marginalized and threatened by white dominance. However, contrary to initial expectations of achieving a perfect black community, the result was the gradual marginalization of the poor blacks who could not afford rising housing costs in the new gentrified neighborhood.
Consequently, the low class residents, previously dependant on the more affordable public housing had to pave way for the upper class bourgeoisie newcomers. In the end, the key factors that determined who really belonged in the revitalized NKO was not race as originally envisioned, but an economic order that determined one’s lifestyle (Pattillo, 15). In this regard, the author’s view on urban revitalization is both cynical and skeptical, for seldom does it achieve its intended goals. While the original aim is to improve the living standards of poor neighborhoods and their residents, the situation in contemporary urban America in general and the case of North Kenwood-Oakland in particular demonstrate that class politics always come into play in ordering social homogeny and stratification.
The significance of this research lies in the insights it provides on the supremacy of class affluence over race in the American society. Before the late sixties when racial differences between whites and blacks were more apparent, there was a tendency by the former to move away from the inner city neighborhoods, which were popular as the dwellings of the under-privileged working class who, inevitably, comprised of blacks and other marginalized groups such as Latino Americans. The affluent whites relocated into suburbs, where they formed exclusive gated communities that further distinguished the truly wealthy from the merely rich. However, with the economic advancement among some black Americans, they were able to compete with their white counterparts in purchasing power, thereby earning the right to ‘gate-crash’ into the white protected enclaves, so to speak. On the other hand, the whites became more willing to move back into previously deserted black neighborhoods that had been rejuvenated into high-end residences. The color of the skin or the knowledge that the guy next door is of ‘the inferior other race’- psychological constructs previously fed by racial stereotyping, lost relevance. In its place emerged a new spirit of interracial coexistence, which rested solely on paring economic status. A similar thread runs in the NKO gentrification process described by Pattillo in Black on the Block. If the metaphorically phrased title is anything to go by, it tells of new entrants, particularly blacks, into the realm of white affluence. They are the “new kids in the block,’ for want of an appropriate expression. Likewise with the white newcomers: once in the block (North Kenwood-Oakland), they are accepted by the truly moneyed black community, racial differences notwithstanding. As it were, both white and blacks alike are “black on the block” as far as the gentrification of NKO goes, their ticket into the ‘block’ and factor of hegemony being the depth of their individual pockets. Thus, Mary Pattillo so vividly captures the trends that characterize the process of urban gentrification not only in North Kenwood-Oakland, but also within the larger American society as well.
The chapter on “The Black Bourgeoisie Meets the Truly Disadvantaged” stands out as the most inspiring part of the book. It underlies the fate that befell the concept of black consciousness, whose spirit was gradually distinguished by the rebirth of a new one: economic status. As Pattillo notes, the original vision reflected a conscious effort by the blacks to protect themselves from the socio-economic and political dominance exerted upon them by the white majority. The residents “who acted as the new neighborhood’s symbolic midwives envisioned a revitalized, self-consciously black community” (Pattillo 10). They wanted to improve their economic status, build a high-end estate and protect it against white intrusion. However, what they could not foresee are the dangers posed by the wide economic inequalities that existed within the black community itself, the new black-bourgeoisie entrants coming back to where they belonged, and the money factor that will favor whites over poor blacks (Pattillo 82). The poor eventually had to move out, since they could not afford the resultant sky-rocketing housing costs occasioned with the influx of the dollar-loaded black bourgeoisie class and whites after a piece of the revitalized neighborhood.
It is here that a re-thinking of the gentrification agenda is needed. Does it really serves the purpose it is intended? Evidently, gentrification is not just about improving residents’ living standards. As clearly illustrated in the book, it is more of a vicious cycle of conflicting inter-class and interracial interests that the author succinctly sums as “the politics of race and class in the city.” The spirit of black community is no longer at work: it has given way to what the dollar can buy. No longer are the marginalized described by the color of their skin, since a new class of bourgeoisie has emerged from this community. The truly disadvantaged, then, is not the low class worker once confined into the poor inner city neighborhoods, but rather the underprivileged who cannot compete in the dollar-governed game of the rich. Gentrification, then, becomes a gradual process of not only bringing the races together, but most worrying- perhaps an integral part of the bargain that can be dismissed by the winners as ‘inevitable collateral damage,’- a systematic process to shut the poor out of the new urban agenda that favors only the rich. Black on the Block really calls for serious thinking in regard to the gentrification process in America, as it is inherently characterized by socio-economic inequalities.
As a process of socio-economic and racial integration, gentrification is advantageous as far as achieving social harmony and a degree of economic inter-class balance are concerned. It ushers in the renovation of deteriorated neighborhoods into better residences and the general improvement of the residents’ economic status. It basically involves investment, thus creating opportunities for investors and job-seekers. Black in the Block shows the economic progress that dawned upon North Kenwood-Oakland following the housing project to renovate existing houses and construct new ones. There was a general improvement of the social living conditions as most residents were able to access better housing facilities. As Pattillo observes in regard to North Kenwood-Oakland, “this has entailed both the mass construction of new, high-end homes and condominiums by developers alongside the more piecemeal rehabilitation of existing old homes by individual investors“(Pattillo 15). Most importantly, moreover, the middle and upper classes are attracted to the working class and poor neighborhoods. It is heralded as what cities need: the influx of tax dollars and readily disposable income from upper-class “immigrants.” The overall impact is the economic revitalization of previously poor neighborhoods.
Nonetheless, the social cost of gentrification is equally significant. As noted before, it works against the low class residents who are forced out by the influx of wealthy home-buyers. The upward trend in housing, rental and land prices creates an unfavorable situation for the poor, which greatly compromises their right to live in the renovated neighborhood. In conclusion then, gentrification has never been about improving the conditions of the poor as widely thought, but pushing them further to the periphery of society to create room for the expanding cycle of the bourgeoisie class.

Works Cited
Pattilo, Mary. Black on the Block: The Politics of Race and Class in the City. Chicago:
Chicago University Press, 2007.

On November 18, 1978 in Jonestown, more than 900 members of the People’s Temple, a cult led by the Rev. Jim Jones, committed mass suicide to avoid an alleged attack. At the time, it was claimed that that they had died from cyanide poisoning. Soon after, Congress Rep. Leo J. Ryan who had sneaked into Jonestown, Guyana to investigate allegations of gross abuse of the sect’s members was murdered, together with a number of journalists and defectors Port Kaituma as they boarded their plane. Later investigations, however, indicated that the victims had been murdered, thereby raising suspicions on the official claim of mass suicide. An emerging concern, consequently, is whether the incident was a government project (an accusing finger has been pointed at the CIA) to experiment on suspect interrogation using mind-control drugs. Nonetheless, it is still puzzling how Jim Jones managed to organize a cult of over a thousand obedient cult-members, bundle them into a camp where they were brainwashed into believing his utopian ideology, and finally having them commit suicide. The paper examines the character and influence of Rev. Jim Jones that enabled him to carry out the cult’s activities with such success, the involvement of Rep Ryan, the media’s handling of the incident and finally, its impact on the victims’ families.
A significant clue to the mystery surrounding the incident is the association of between Rev. Jones Dan Mitrione, a friendiship dating back to their childhood days. Mitrione was a police chief in the early years of Jim Jones’ ministry in Indianapolis, which already exhibited cultish elements. He later joined the International Police Academy, allegedly a CIA decoy established for the purpose of training in counter insurgency and torturing techniques. Later on, Jones left the US to live in Brazil, where his old friend Mitrione was already stationed- at the Belo Horizonte CIA headquarters in Brazil. While in Brazil, Jones is said to have told neighbors that “he was employed by the US Office of Naval Intelligence who supplied him with transport, living expenses and a large home in which he lived like a rich man” (Steel, 2010). When he returned to America with only $ 10 000, he was able to start the communal facilities run by the Peoples Temple, and despite lacking a trained medical personnel, was able to operate a nursing home. But then, nonetheless, what raises eyebrows more than anything else is the allegation that “The Temple had a strong association with the World Vision organization that many conspiracy theorists believe to be another CIA front, and had as a consultant, a mercenary from the rebel army UNITA, supposedly backed by the CIA” (Steel, 2010).
Born in 1931, James Warren Jim Jones was a pastor ordained by the Christian Church of Christ’s Disciples, and who promoted a utopian agenda. In the 19700s, it is said that “Jones had been abusing prescription drugs and appears to have become increasingly paranoid” (Moore, 2008). Indeed, when he began the sect in San Francisco, he had promised “to create a utopia, where people of different races, education and skills could work together for the common good” (Osherow, 2000). Not surprisingly, his Peoples Temple project attended to orphans, the homeless, elderly people and the sick. He claimed to have the powers to heal diseases like arthritis, cancer and heart infections. As a result, he was able to appeal to a multitude of the marginalized groups of society, whom he confined in a camp for cultish indoctrination. In addition, his project became popular among his subjects due to the ideologies he espoused. It was with good calculation, therefore, that he preached
“a ‘social gospel’ of human freedom, equality, and love, which required helping the least and the lowliest of society’s members. Later on, however, this gospel became explicitly socialistic, or communistic in Jones’ own view, and the hypocrisy of white Christianity was ridiculed while ‘apostolic socialism’ was preached” (Moore, 2008).
Besides, Jim Jones is famed as a charismatic speaker with flowing eloquence and fine oratory skills. Consequently, he was able to lure his subjects into his project by the appeal of his sensual, passionate verbal appeal. It is said that “He sought people for his church who would be receptive to his messages and bevulnerable to promises, and he carefully honed his presentation to appeal to each specific audience” (Osherow, 2000).
His charity projects that served the poor and elderly earned him much admiration from many quarters. He had a network of high connections with a number of influencial political leaders, which saw him win an appointment to the San Francisco Housing Authority. Behind the mask of a loving leader who espoused interracial harmony and coexistence, he exaggerated a messianic image in the Peoples Temple, which was significant in commanding unquestionable obeisance. He increasingly became the members’ object of adoration and devotion, and he in turn exploited their loyal obedience and numbers to gain influence within political circles. He introduced enforced taxation among members and preached sermons that centered on a nuclear crisis that would spell catastrophic destruction of the world, while assuring his subjects that they will be the sole survivors. It was a clever maneuver to control the members imaginations and condition them into absolute devotion.
Nonetheless, the shift from its original aim of administering to the underprivileged and integrating people of diverse racial and cultural background suggest a radical departure from community service to cultish activities. The first hint of a cult movement was when he claimed that a nuclear war was on the offing, thus preparing his subjects minds for their dooms day. Thus, it could be argued that Jim James was a schemer from the very beginning, who knew what he was after, where and how to achieve it. By starting a community serving project he was able to blind keen observers who could have raised suspicion. By running a non-profit organization he was able to get support, especially from the government. It is telling that the organization leased over 4000 acres of land from the government in Guyana, and started the “Peoples Temple Agricultural Project” where they grew crops and raised animals for consumption and sale.
It is here, in the secluded jungle of Guyana, that Jones “developed a belief called Translation in which he and his followers would all die together, and would move to another planet for a life of bliss. Mass suicides were practiced in which his followers pretended to drink poison and fell to the ground” (Moore 2008). His temple attorney and right hand man, Tim Stoen, left the organization and formed another outfit called the community of “Concerned Relatives”, which was also more cultish than anything civil. By then, claims were surfacing that Jonestown was being ruled like a concentration camp, with allegations of gross abuse of human rights and confining people against their own volition.
THE IMPACT ON VICTIMS AND FAMILIES
The organization’s brutality is characterized by its philosophy, which condemned familial ties and co-existence. Initially, children were cut off from their parents gradually by seating them away during church services, and then eventually assigned different foster parents as they grew up. Finally, parents were coerced to surrender their children by signing documents that denied them custody rights. He preached that “Families are part of the enemy system,” because they hurt ones total dedication to the “Cause” (Mills, 1979).
Besides blatant attempts to split parents from their children, the cult’s leader endeavored to loosen wife-husband bonds as well. Not only were spouses coerced into engaging in extramarital sex, but also made them to engage in homosexuality or any other humiliating sexual activities. Moreover, it is said that he had intercourse with them himself. All other sexual activities that he did not permit were discouraged as abominable to sect members, and as such-for good measure that is, they were publicly banned and ridiculed. These acts affected family relations, as well as eroded the societal norms that govern social relations such as marriage. The practice of isolation of children from their parents had profound negative psychological effects on the victims. In general, the overall impact was the systematic brainwashing of the organization’s members to discard their socially acceptable behaviors, and learn new values that undermined their human dignity, demoralized their beliefs and tortured their consciences.
Fear was another element of control perpetuated by Jones upon his followers. He utilized “the threat of severe punishment to impose the strict discipline and absolute devotion that he demanded, and he also took measures to eliminate those factors that might encourage resistance or rebellion among his followers” (Neal Osherow). By instilling a sense of fear, he was able to discourage dissence and open rebellion to his teachings. to express doubts or criticize his views, or express divergent opinions to relatives became risky. Such sentiments were suppressed and kept to oneself, which ensured that no conspiracy for revolt was ever thought of. Thus, by limiting “ones access to information, this “fallacy of uniqueness” precluded the sharing of support, and among the few who successfully defected from the Peoples Temple were couples such as Jeanne and Al Mills, who kept together, shared their doubts, and gave each other support” (Osherow, 2000). Further, he used informers to stifle dissent views and diminish the spirit of solidarity and loyalty in individuals towards one another and their families. Whilst preaching that a sense of brotherly love and commitment to one another was necessary among members, he also ensured that personal dedication should be directed to the Father alone (Jones himself). In this regard, it could be argued that Jim Jones succeeded in intimidating members into scared subjects that he could rule by the whims of his will. It was a systematic conditioning of men and children into subservient subjects that can be domesticated like caged animals.

Introduction
In order to analyze the type of work done by students, teachers and students alike have resorted to the use of rubrics. They act as very powerful tools for both teaching and assessment. The rubrics therefore are very much used as tools of conveying the teacher’s expectation and at the same time show the student how to meet the expectations. By providing students with the rubrics for the assignment they were to do, the teacher expects that the student will gauge the intensity of work that is expected of him/her to achieve the specific scores that accompany the different attributes (Dannelle, 2004). When a student gets low marks for instance, it would be obvious to him/her and the teacher that she/he knew what he/she was doing in the first place!
The state of Indiana objective which I am going to work with is “To ensure that students read and respond to grade-level-appropriate historically and culturally significant works of literature with different levels of complexity with the aim of being able to differentiate different types of fiction and their characteristics” (Catherine, 1995). From this objective, I will therefore expect the students to show their understanding through both oral and written presentation on four main issues namely; Summarize a piece of literature, Differentiate between classic and contemporary literature, analyze different forms of fiction and to provide the different types of fictions in the literature.
RUBRIC FOR ASSESSING THE ORAL PRESENTATION
CRITERIA QUALITY
Exceeded expectations Met expectations Below expectations Possible Score

10
Summarize a piece of literature The learner presents a brief, yet comprehensive summary of the major plot, clearly highlighting the key thematic concerns The learner presents a brief, coherent summary of the text’s plot, highlighting some of the key thematic concerns The learner presents a summary of the text, without focusing on the main plot or identifying the key the thematic concerns.
Differentiate classic and contemporary literature. Clearly identifies the major elements of classic and contemporary literature, and is able to state the main distinguishing features Identifies the elements of classic and contemporary literature, and some of their distinguishing features. Identifies only some of the major elements of classic and contemporary literature. 5
Analyze different forms of fiction Identifies and gives an in-depth analysis of the different forms of fiction. Identifies and analyses some of the various forms of fiction Identifies only some of the different forms of fiction, with little or shallow analysis 15
Provide examples of fiction from the literature. States several examples of fiction texts, and identifies the genres in which they belong States some examples of fiction texts with their genre classification States only a few examples of fiction texts, without clearly identifying their genres 5
Ability to catch attention Learner demonstrates ability to capture and maintain audience attention, with a display of good oratory and narration skills.
Captures listeners’ attention, and fairly maintains their interest during the presentation. Fails to capture audience attention throughout the presentation 5
Ability to answer questions Responds to questions accurately and coherently, with a demonstration of high competence in the subject area
Correctly answers questions, with significant demonstration of competence in the subject area. Fails to answer questions correctly, and exhibits lack of clear understanding of the subject area. 5
Content level Shows mastery of relevant content in the subject area through a comprehensive, accurate and coherent analysis of all forms of fiction.
Demonstrates significant understanding of enough content in the subject area. The learner clearly and in detail analyses some of the various forms of fiction Shows little or shallow mastery of content, by failing to give a detailed account of the various forms of literature. 5
TOTAL SCORE
50

In the rubrics for assessing the oral presentation, the first table seeks to ascertain how best the students achieved the set goals from the objective in terms of expectations the teacher had in them at individual level. The second one measured the same goals but in terms of content level, ability to answer questions and catching the attention of the listeners. The totals are then summed up in the column shown.
RUBRIC FOR ASSESSING THE WRITTEN REPORT.
CRITERIA QUALITY
Exceeded expectations Met expectations Below expectations Possible Score
Summarize a piece of literature Writes a coherent and comprehensive summary of the text reading, with a clear description of the major plot, highlighting most of the thematic concerns Writes a comprehensive and clear summary of the plot, identifying some of the key themes in the text readings. Describes the main plot, with little or no focus on the major thematic concerns. 10
Differentiate classic and contemporary literature. Clearly identifies the major elements of classic and contemporary literature, and is able to state the main distinguishing features Identifies the elements of classic and contemporary literature, and some of their distinguishing features. Identifies only some of the major elements of classic and contemporary literature. 5
Analyze different forms of fiction Identifies and gives an in-depth description and analysis of the different forms of fiction. Identifies and analyses some of the major forms of fiction Identifies only some of the different forms of fiction, with little or shallow analysis 15

Grammar and mechanics The assignment is free of any grammatical errors, with correct sentence structure and coherent paragraph transition. The assignment has two to three grammatical errors, with significant coherence in paragraph transition Contains several grammatical errors, poor sentence structure and lack of coherence in paragraph transition 5
Inclusion of required contents Contains all the necessary information, with clear description and in-depth analysis of the key elements Assignment contains significant relevant information, clearly and accurately presented. Fails to present all the relevant subject content, with poor presentation of information. 10
Accuracy of content The information presented is accurate and specific to requirements. It comprehensively and convincingly addresses the specific questions, with clear demonstration of deep understanding Provided information is relevant to the question, and answers the question satisfactorily. The information is irrelevant to the topic, and the question is not backed with convincing evidence. 10
TOTAL SCORE 50

In the rubrics for assessing the written report, the first table still looks at the four goals in terms of expectations. The second table looks at the same goals but in terms of grammar, accuracy of report, length of report and the ability to include the required materials.
Conclusion
Rubrics are therefore very useful tools since they help the students to be more thoughtful judges of their different styles of doing work. It helps teachers to reduce the amount of time that they spend in evaluating student’s work. The ‘Accordion” nature of rubrics enables teachers to use them in heterogeneous classes (Judith, 2000). Finally, rubrics are effective tools of assessment which are very easy to use and interpret. By using a properly designed rubric therefore makes the process of analyzing the presentations, both oral and written of students very easy and effective since the guidelines are in place.