Most global economists have dedicated their efforts in trying to bring the price theory “up- to-date”. This is has been done by implementing realistic assumptions rather than engaging in simple monopoly and perfect competitions. One rationale for such approaches is engaging debt reduction approaches. By easing debt overhangs, most firms belief that there will be improved investment efficiency. Debt reduction is achieved within a sturdy policy framework and this affects economic development significantly. (John M, Michael E1974). The main benefit of reducing economic overhangs is to perk up investments for private investors. In this case, direct liquidity relief becomes secondary.  Evaluating debt reduction operations entails guesstimating effective benefits and direct financial savings. The basic reference for evaluating complex deals is found in open market buybacks. In this case, the approach in determining an upper bound hinges, in this assumption, is that efficiency gains a lot on a straight open-market purchases. Going g by this argument, the debts will not exceed the gains to the creditors. For instance, if open-market buy-backs certainly ease debt overhangs and as a result, move a country towards more investments, hence, creditors  becomes more than willing to anticipate in this, by setting a price for forwarding their claims. Consequently, part of the effective gains will be dissipated in supplementary capital growth to creditors. (Arrow K.J and Linda L.C 1970).

 

To add weight to the estimates for efficiency gains, the empirical estimations indicate that the derived general bounds tend to overstate the efficiency gains of reduced debt operation. For instance, in Mexico an estimation of upper bound efficiency gains is at US $ 1 billion however, the estimated point is only at U.S 1 billion. From the above argument, a question can arise of the possible policy implications of their low point estimates. It is however, argued that debt-overhang disincentive cannot be as important as the problem of debt’s constraints in global capital markets. Again, there is need to package new loans in a structure that will benefit developing nations hence, maximizing investment incentives. This can be done by using loans rather than using the outright grants the donors’ give a country. By so doing, donors can give a country more funds for investment at a lower discounted expense. However, grants unlike loans, they do not alter investment incentives. This means that if a country with financial constraints begins with no debt overhangs, the first trance of any assistance is likely to be in hard loans. Consequently, as transfers increases and the borrowing country is not in access to private capital markets, then marginal grants are in terms of grants. This strategy of capital flows increases grants, while at the same time decreasing loans. (Richard P, Stephen G 1994)

 

In conclusion, investments are envisaged as producing expansions of the firm’s stock on capital hence, expands its future stream of revenues and output. This means that the amount of expansion on its output is attained by increased investment and, determined by a given production faction. Consequently, the revenues resulting from additional investments are determined by a known market demand. This means that the rate on investment is that of discounting of future payments and receipts hence will equalize the current value of the net investment outlaid with the present values of returns. This is attributed to its whole production life of capital goods that are involved. Comparisons determine the amount and type of investment that that a company should make in order to maximize the current and future returns. (John M, Michael E.1974

QUESTION ONE

            According to the Lanhaman act, ‘Any advertising or promotion that misrepresents the nature, characteristics, qualities or geographic origin of goods, services or commercial activities attracts a legal action.’[1] Basing Michael’s argument on this act, the plaintiff, has various reasons to base his case. First, he is in a position to prove that the advertisement of the commercial activity was false, as it potential deceived him. Secondly, the goods involved interstate commerce and therefore, affected his purchasing decision. Finally, the deception of the advertisement injured his reputation. As a matter of fact, the injury is attributed to the amount of money lost, through expenses he incurred while trying to rush to the competition. Mr. Michael can go on to argue that his money will not have been lost if the advertisement could not have made.[2]

There are legislations about false advertisements are very specific and the plaintiff should be aware of them. Generally, they are more of consumer protection at the state level than under the common law. Besides the fact that the advertisement was false on its face, the manufacturer failed to disclose very important information which the consumer was entitled to know. Under the Lanham’s act, the representation was ‘untrue as a result of the failure to disclose a material fact.’[3] Going by this assortment, the advertisement was and partly corrects statement which were misleading, as they did not bring out what the customer wanted to know.

 

In this case, the court should use its discretion to determine that the disclosure of information was insufficient hence; the manufacturer was advertising its product by making a number of astounding claims on the performance of the car and value for the money as compared to its competitors. This claim sounds good to the ear and any potential client can ran to it without giving it a second thought therefore, the plaintiff should be justified to argue that he was confused on the state of the product therefore, a mistake was made. This should make the manufacturer to be liable in a civil action taken by the plaintiff and be able to collect damages. Mr. Michael has evidences which indicate that he was actually deceived and that the manufacturing company used the advertisement in bad faith[4]

 

On the same ground, the plaintiff should be aware that there are laws which protect consumers from such deceptive trade practices. This includes practices of showing products with an intention of not actually selling them as advertised. In Michael’s case, the advertisement was not real and was only meant to attract people to the show room. As a result of this, it affected his choice of the product. It is worth noting that it is an offence for a manufacturer to advertise a product that is likely to cause damage, injury or loss to the public. Again, even though everything that was stated in the advertisement may have been literally true, the advertisement should be considered as misleading because the impression it created was false.[5]

 

The plaintiff should go a head and argue that the manufacturer omitted or hide important material information. Consequently, what the advertisement provided was unintelligible, unclear, and unclear and was done in untimely manner. The manufacturer failed to make the commercial intent clear to the public and as a result, the plaintiff made un- informed decision. However, the manufacturer may argue that there was limitation of time or space in the media. In such circumstances, he should have taken other relevant steps to convey the message (such as stating “terms and conditions apply”).the plaintiff may also argue that he made haste decisions because the advertisement falsely stated that the competition was only available for a very short time. Again, the advertisement claimed to offer a prize promotion, but it never awarded the prizes described or gave a reasonable equivalent. As a consumer, the plaintiff stands a chance to be protected from these criminal misrepresentations. As a matter of fact, the plaintiff has a right to be given facts needed to make informed decisions hence, should be protected from these misleading advertisements[6]

By staging a competition that was not real, the misleading advertisement caused damage to the plaintiff and this includes the financial losses. In his argument, he should not be made to bear this unnecessary costs hence, should participate in the lawsuit to get compensation for the losses incurred. On the same note, the plaintiff should argue that he was just but a victim of bait for the company to get what it wanted. Under the Federal Trade Commission Act switch, this kind of advertisement should be considered illegal. It is illegal to promote a product that the company doest not intend to sell under given conditions. As par the federal and state consumer protection laws, a penalty should be imposed to companies that run misleading ads. In this case, the company should either be ordered to stop engaging in deceptive practices, urged to give corrective advertising, or be fined accordingly. In this event, the misleading advertisement caused injury to the consumer; therefore civil penalties should be imposed to recover the monetary damages. Well, going by the Lanham act, “a consumer bringing a lawsuit against a company must prove that the advertisement was actually false or likely to mislead or confuse consumers”. This is a requirement for one to obtain recovery damages but, in Michael’s case, he has all the evidence required. This includes the passing of inaccurate information that meant to persuade him to buy on less favorable conditions than the actual market terms[7]

In general terms, the commercial practice was unfair and contrary to professional diligence requirements and was likely to distort materially the economic behavior of the plaintiff. The misleading omissions caused him harassment and in the court of law, there are provisions for such actions. In this case, the subject of protection from such multipartite is the consumer, who is Mr. Michael. In this case the plaintiff should seek for interim measures that will immediately terminate the unfair practices. Upon satisfying the necessary requirements, he should be sure that injunctive relief will be granted by the courts. This is demonstrated in the Lanhaman act, ‘likelihood of deception or confusion on the part of the buying public caused by a product’s false or misleading description or advertising’[8]. Again the plaintiff is in a position to demonstrate to the court that an irreparable harm “occurred, which is in this case was the financial damage and the time lost.

 

 

QUESTION TWO

Against the dealer who gave him the test drive, he should try to resolve his concerns with him. In the first place, he should inform him that he was not happy and, because the dealer was equally involved in the misleading conduct. Forthrightly, the plaintiff should apply to the court for an injunction. Better still, he can visit local offices of Fair Trade, which can help him with local issues of the misleading conduct. The trade offices are likely to provide him with relevant information on how to lodge claims against the dealer. This should be on the grounds that the dealer in the first place was dishonest and created a misleading impression to the plaintiff. Since Mr. Michael may not be the only consumer affected, therefore he should take an immediate action to save those who might fall into the same trap. This can only be done by first taking a legal action against the dealer before even the manufacturer.

 

Accordingly, the conduct of the dealer was unfair as it failed to meet the standard of ‘professional diligence’. Consequently, the dealer lacked skills and care which are reasonably expected of him. Moreover, the dealer had failed to comply with state laws and should therefore; ensure the dealer stops driving down the wrong side of the legal map. In this case, the defendant should be accused of creating a fictions entity and a false sense of urgency. On an honest and ethical ground, the dealer should be aware of the state’s consumer protection laws. As a result, he should have told his employees that the practice was likely to put him into trouble. Furthermore, there are state laws which can allow him sue the dealer, even if the violation was not intentional[9]

 

To add weight to his claim, the dealer failed to provide all information on labels at his selling point. As a dealer, he is supposed to cooperate with government organizations of codes of marketing so as to ensure adequate consumer protection is facilitated. In general by allowing Mr. Michael to drive one of the cars without giving out any information, and only later on to tell him that the competition was not real, the dealer violated his consumer rights. Going by the above arguments, both the manufacturer and the dealer have a case to answer in a court of law.

It is always easier to sit through a two hour popular TV show than a mere than minute lecture session. While the former falls within the realm of what is generally regarded as re-creative, captivating, engaging and sometimes intimate, the latter is often frowned upon as a boring and tasteless experience. Curiously, a TV show and a lecture session are both punctuated by the elements of verbal and non-verbal cues that aid and facilitate communication. Nonetheless, it’s the distinctive features in terms of style, presentation techniques and individual demeanors that makes the difference by making the one attractive to the audience and the other uninteresting. Therefore, one of the key factors in communication strategy is the ‘flavor and color’ that the speaker adds into the communication process so as to capture audience interest and effectively, convey the message more effectively (Greer and Marie, 2009). Consequently, the ‘facts-only’ approach that usually occasions a formal classroom experience lacks the substance of appeal that is ever present in popular TV shows, which makes them so addictive to the audience. Thus, an element of dramatic presentation becomes necessary in such situations to create a rapport with the audience to sustain their interest and and facilitate communication (Lincoln, 2008).

It is no wonder then that the TV game show Deal or No Deal by famous presenter Noel Edmonds is such a sensational hits among millions of fans worldwide. Likewise, for a long time, CBS veteran news presenter, Walter Cronkite, commanded great authority in the airwaves and the trust of many Americans as far as ‘breaking the breaking-news to the world’ went. Despite the fact that both programs belong to different genres and have contrasting target goals, they nonetheless share a commonality in the way are ‘spiced up’, so to speak, by their respective presenters. Media savviness and personality features that characterize the uniqueness of their presentation notwithstanding, they exhibit a distinctive canniness ability to simultaneously manipulate verbal and non-verbal cues to make a visible impact upon the audience, such as body movements (Fortunati, 2005, 55). Most importantly however, their success at communication is determined by the ability to take into account the various concepts of communication that influences the receivership of messages, and effectively employing communication techniques in their presentation. The paper examines how the use of communication concepts promotes effective communication, and by extension, how they can be applied in business practices.

Deal or No Deal involves a great deal of money, actually, but you never get to pocket it until you have a deal. Like common business contract and deal making scenarios, the game show presents a situation of wits, risk taking, ambition, calculation and timing to make the best possible deal. However, unlike real business deals, the show is characterized by suspense, individual audacity to gamble and the nerve to endure the loss. All these aspects are reflected in the actors’ demeanor and antics to outwit the other. Consider the character of the Banker, the man who ostensibly owns the money, and is desperate to buy you out before you hit the ultimate prize. From the onset of the game, it is made clear that among the several boxes, there is one containing the prize money. The concept of dressing sends clear signals that big money is in town. The Banker is usually dressed in expensive tailor suits, which can even make a new comer to point out the man with all the money. His overall attire, as one friend likes to put it, “literally stinks of big money.” This is due to the stereotyping culture which associates appearance with connotative meanings such as expensive clothes and affluence, and the trust accorded well-dressed people (Cardon, 2010). Perhaps this is what cultivates confidence among the contestants that the deal is as genuine as one that is crafted in Wall Street.  Interesting enough, the prize box does not contain hard cash that the lucky winner can claim. On the contrary, it contains only a value written over it. A comparison of this aspect with the use of checks in making payments draws an important conclusion about the importance of nonverbal cues in business communication. The first impression created by the participants through their mode of dressing inspires confidence, such that a written document representing a certain amount of money is accepted by another party.  That, as it were, is the power of an Armani suit.

The contestants’ fervor to stay put until the end, and the often displayed determination to remain firm ‘come what may’ is informed by the possibility of winning big-time. This foreknowledge that there is something worthy taking a risk for encourages the contestant to insist that there is “No Deal” with the offered money, and in turn makes the Banker to either raise his bidding or convince the contestant that it is the best deal he could get. In this regard, the key aspect of the show in relation to communication concepts is the Banker’s use of a combination of non-verbal and verbal cues such as facial expressions and hushed, gentle ‘advise-giving’ tone to subtly suggest to the contestant and audience- in a deceptive manner, in fact, that the contestant will lose if he/she insists to their No Deal stance. For instance, the Banker offers $100 000 and the contestant blurts out “No Deal! At this point, the game is nearing its end, and the contestant is at the verge of either winning or losing. At the same time, the Banker is aware that the chances of winning are higher than otherwise, but his job is to make the contestant doubt the possibility of a win, shake their confidence a little and in effect make them take the offered deal. So the banker feigns surprise- apparently, with a frown, shakes his head and gently asks the contestant, “You refuse 100 grand for the unknown, and probably to lose out everything?” and then raising the voice for the audience exclaims, “This is incredible!” eventually, it pays out and the deal is accepted. It is not that the Banker’s claims are true or his concerns for the contestant genuine, although this is what the contestant believes! The underlying influence is the paralinguistic approach: the way he says it, such that he sounds truly honest and sincere. In this respect, non-verbal cues such as facial expressions serves to complement what is verbally said, and in effect promote effective communication.

“That is the Way it Is” was Walter Cronkite’s parting shot after a news session. The catchy phrase, said with convincing confidence and inspirational honesty characterized Cronkite’s style of news reportage, which in turn inspired great trust among most American audience. It has been said that the phrase become more popular than the Lord’s Prayer. Known for his clarity, objectivity, consistency, integrity and authority in reporting the world’s most important events, he was once declared “the only honest face on TV” (Rottenberg, 1994). This is not a statement of fact, but it nonetheless shows the effect his character had on the impressions of viewers. Honesty is not a proven trait of his personality. Regardless, his approach to issues by taking an objective perspective and presenting news with an authoritative voice signaled that ‘it is so,’ and effectively served to endear him and his message to the audience. To further strengthen audience confidence, the phrase “That is the way it is,’ said with such clarity and powerful voice portrayed a man sure of himself. This aspect is also present in the Banker’s self-confidence which suggests that there is money around and the contestant may be losing. When hundred thousand dollars are given out without flinching and with such casualness as if is like giving sweets to a kid, mesmerizes the audience and makes the game the more interesting.

Qz 1

One of the big decisions an investor make is whether to put his/her money in foreign stocks. While investing in foreign nations can sometimes be lucrative the rewards comes with other additional risks. In this regard, worthwhile foreign investments can be more expensive than investing at home. However, there are some good reasons for foreign investments invest overseas. From the portfolio management perspective, putting ones money is a way of diversity. For instance, the foreign shares and the U.S always do not move in sync .This means that when one is down, the other one is up and vice versa. In other terms, these markets lack correlation.  Many countries heavily rely on the United States for exports and imports and this can be susceptible to the US markets shifts. In the current global economy, stocks tend to move to the same direction more so when the United States is experiencing a bull market. The economic development of China has a good prospectus and currently, the asset prices are lowering. Definitely, this is the best time for an excellent investment. Over the past few years, the automobile industry has slowed down in its investment pace. The first priority will be to recruit highly qualified professionals, of which China has many excellent professionals. The company will operate in two or more countries but decisions will be centralized in the home country. With $U.S.800 million to build on, the company will take into consideration projects from shareholders to be considered for funding,  profit sharing will be 30%. By so doing, it is most likely that returns on shares will increase. On the same note, returns on equity will be expressed from the anticipated dividends on shares on a yearly basis.  (Vijay. P 2007)

Qz 2

The company will use various bonds, loans and other forms of debt. This will be a very important measure, when giving out ideas on the overall rates paid by the company while using debt financing. Equally, it will show the investors how risky the company is as compared to others. This will make investors to develop confidence in the company. On a brighter note, multinational companies are usually meet with lower inflations rates and this leads to lower interest rates on loans. Therefore, borrowing from a lower interest rate countries will be more attractive to the company. However, currencies in low-inflation nations sometimes tend to appreciate against those of high inflation countries and as a result, the effective interest cost will tend to increase over the time frame. Some other obstacles such as funds, which may be repatriated must in the first instance be converted into the U.S dollars, hence the company must take into consideration the exchange rates. Equally, most of the foreign projects are faced with political risks. This can be political changes that can alter the company’s expected income and value.

Some other events related to political instability include riots, civil war, coups and insurrection but all these will be overlooked. On the other end, most foreign investments are taxed locally, but then, the funds may be subjected to the U.S taxes. This will prove to be expensive for the company’s investment. However, the U.S government may allow for a tax credit for foreign taxes to be paid. Other than the above obstacles, cultural differences play a key role in foreign investment. Different countries have different languages and with this kind of investment, the company will need professional interpreters to break language barrier. This will attract clients and ensure smooth run of business. Lastly, most laws in various countries have their roots in social structures, economic policies and background of any country. Consequently, there are regulatory issues in foreign investments that the company must overcome before thinking of cross border investments

Qz 3

Generally, the investment project is a good value for money, as expense estimates will be accounted for. A detailed analysis of unforeseen risks which should be added to the WACC of 12% as estimation is made on the required rate of return on the proposed project investment. A summery of the above analysis indicates that foreign markets lack correlation and therefore, investing outside U.S is an effective way of diversifying your portfolio. Nevertheless, when investing in China one needs to understand the risks involved in relation to the potential rewards. Still investors have opportunities to access foreign markets and, this can be done through instruments such as international stocks which could be traded on U.S exchanges. While project investment cannot be regarded as an improvement on capital, we cannot account for a no- cash flow allowance. Hence, in our estimated risk scale is as follows:

Low =1%, moderate =2%, and high =3%, an estimated return on capital on capital investment is 30% as shown below.

WACC- 12.0%

Project Risk Premium- 2.0%

Exchange rate Risk- 2.0%

Cultural Risk, Government & Political Risk-   3%

The basic aim of this research is to produce a comprehensive academic poster that will be presented orally. This is an informative poster aims at informing people what the term Production Possibilities Frontier (PPF) means and its impact on the economy.

The Production Possibilities Frontier (PPF) is found in the profession of Economics, specifically, Macro Economics. When we talk about the PPF, we actually mean that a country’s economy has reached a level where its production of goods and services as well as its distribution of the resources has reached an optimum level.

The Production Possibilities Frontier is a very crucial aspect especially to today’s economy, “It shows the maximum amount of one commodity that can be obtained for any specified production level of the other commodity, given the society’s technology and the amount of factors of production available” (Arnold. R A. 2008) 543.

            According to the Production Possibilities Frontier, production has its own limitations hence it is crucial for an economy to prioritize the nature of goods and services it produces in order to achieve success (Parkin M. 2008) 395.

 

STRUCTURE OF THE POSTER.

The production possibility frontier research will use a graph model that will show the maximum combination of output reproduced from a given output. Assuming that the economy produces 2 goods and at the same time assume that the quantity and technology factors remain fixed then, here is a possible combination. (A farmer grows either barley or wheat on a piece of land).

 

Wheat	40	30	20	10	0
Barley	0	5	10	15	20

 

For easier understanding, the research will make use of a report. In this case therefore, the PPF will be drawn with the wealth on the vertical axis. Notably, this will be on a straight line and any point on the production possibility frontier will be assumed to be “efficient”. The economy in this case gets the most it can consider the fixed technology and resources. (Bator, Francis M. 1957).

 

 

Audience

The audience will consist of investors who will more specifically be interested on what their businesses can produce and without producing less on the other end. The audience will fully be aware of inefficiencies that are as a result of inefficient management and unemployed resources. The audience will be made to understand that growth in the business sector can only be achieved through better and more inputs such labor and capital. Better still, from better technological organizations. To help the audience understand the topic better, the information will be presented by use of a chart as follows;

 

 

 

Production Possibility Frontier

The chart gives a simple illustration as to what happens when all factors of production are fully used in their potential. Going by the above diagram, the economy can choose to operate at a lower capacity anywhere inside the curve. For instance, at point a, however, such a combination of commodities may be lower than what the economy will adequately produce. Going by the above demonstration  “some factors of production are suited to producing both wine and grain, but as the production of one of these commodities increases, resources better suited to production of the other must be diverted.” (Samuelson A. Paul 1967)

To make them understand the behavior of the graph better, some terms will have to be defined. This includes the absolute advantage that occurs when one party becomes more productive than the other and hence, produces an amount that has low inputs. Again a comparative advantage will be defined and in this case, one party tend to have a lower opportunity cost than the other. In simple terms, one is fairly more productive in production of one of the two goods. At the end of the presentation a quick summery will be given on the main issues. This will allow the audience to comprehend what they could have missed during the discussion. Again, they will be allowed to ask questions that will be answered using relevant supporting documents such as documentaries for clarity purposes. (Farrell, MJ 1957)

Academic style and language

The academic English writing will be linear. This means the research will have one central point and every part will be contributing to the main point of argument, without repetition or digressions. As a matter of fact, the objective of this presentation will be to inform rather than entertain. On the same note, it will be based on the standard form of a language that is formal.

The presentation will use spoken language more than written language. This is so specifically because written languages tend to be more complex than the spoken ones; hence the audience will be more comfortable with it. The presentation is based on an academic research done by various academicians. As a result, referencing will be mandatory so as to give it a professional touch it entails. This will be done at the end of every paragraph. To take responsibility of the presentation, justifications and evidences will be provided for any claim made. Consequently, it will be very important to demonstrate and understand the sources of the texts used as will as paraphrasing what other researchers have done. In general, the presentation will find the need to embroil the MLA writing style so as to ensure the authentic of the work done.  (Gillespie, Andrew 2007)

The use of partial power point in an academic presentation is a very important tool when driving a point home. It will therefore be adopted so as to ensure smooth flow of ideas. Again, to ensure that the audience has got permanent materials to keep referring to, adequate handouts will be supplied to each and every one of them. By so doing, this will make the presentation to be even more simple and better.

Literature review

The literature review will take into account the global background of the economy. In this case, factions in the developing nations will be analyzed alongside the emerging markets. Elsewhere, it will analyze on how it has contributed to violence in some parts of the world. The background information is very important ant more so to the audience as it enables them get armed with relevant knowledge before the actual presentation is done. (Samuelson A. Paul 1967)

In any academic writing, the use of connections is very important in creating and maintaining coherence through the logical flow of ideas. In this regard, four key techniques are identified as the parameters through which coherence is achieved. To begin with, transitional verbs help to link one idea to another, in addition to acting as signals of a turning point in an argument.  Secondly, pointing words like “this” and “such” serve as a relational point for preceding and following sentences. This technique not only reflects the continuity of the argument, but also expands the previous thought. Thirdly, the use of certain key terms and phrases help to capture the main thematic concerns of the text. To this end, topical terms such as “academic writing” and “text coherence” narrow the reader’s focus to a particular subject of interest. Last but not least, well thought out repetitions comes in handy when there is need to emphasis a specific idea, position taken or line of argument. This notwithstanding, however, it’s necessary to use a variety of word phrasing and sentence structure to avoid redundancy and sounding monotonous. In the following text, transitional verbs, pointing words, repletion and key phrases have been used to achieve coherence.

Food Security

More than ever before, food security is a major issue of concern which has drawn the attention of various government leaders and global organizations. In fact, world population has increased at an alarming rate, and as a result, the need to create enough food reserves is becoming increasingly urgent internationally. Closely connected to this issue is the destruction of environments, which has created uncertainty about food security for the future generations (Wiebe, 14). Therefore, an effective food policy is overdue to address these concerns and in turn, cushion mankind from the effects of food shortages such as hunger, starvation and malnutrition. Nonetheless, protecting the world’s population from the pangs of hunger requires the formulation and implementation of effective food policies aimed at increasing food productivity, more especially in the third world countries.  Accordingly, the Toronto Food Policy that was established in 1991 for this goal- increasing Toronto’s food productivity- is the paper’s pint of focus.

Over the years, tremendous progress has been realized in Toronto since the creation and implementation of the policy in 1991. The main aim of the policy was to enhance food security, create environmental friendly activities, promote community development and improved nutrition. Hence, the Toronto Food Policy had a clear mission which aimed at a food system that avails equitable food access, environmental health, community development as well as nutrition. Its aim has therefore been to afford humanity secure food for the future and alleviate poverty and suffering (Toronto Food Policy Council, 1).

In working towards this end, a lot of efforts have been put in the establishment of an effective food policy in Toronto to cushion the expanding population against food shortages. One such move is the focus on public health to address increasing concerns about environmental destruction. Indeed, according to Toronto Food Policy Council (2004, para. 1), “Toronto was one of the originators of, and among the first world cities to sign onto, the United Nations’ Healthy Cities movement.” In addition, the Toronto Food Policy Council (TFPC) was created in 1991 in Toronto city. Despite the fact that the food policy council was created in the absence of federal government leaders, TFPC has been instrumental in establishing partnerships with business institutions as well as community groups for the development of programs to promote food security. Generally, the aim of the council is to create a food system that provides equal distribution of food, whilst maintaining a good environment. Similarly, the nutrition of the people is a very important issue and the council also aims at promoting developmental needs of the communities involved in the policy (Toronto Food Policy Council, para. 2).

 

Introduction

There is no doubt that politics is the main determining factor in a country’s socio-economic organization. Political interference in both private and public lives of citizens- whether directly through legislation or indirectly through incentive policies influence how social and economic institutions are structured and managed (Weede, 1996). In the economic sector, particularly, government policies are very crucial in determining investment patterns and property ownership systems, both of which impact significantly to the national economic status. Economic policies, however, are determined by the kind of the dominant political regime in a country. For instance, the latest statistics portray that China’s communist regime enjoys high support that comes from citizens who are positive about its political as well as economic futures (Chen, Zhong and Hillard, 1997). By comparing the political regimes of China and USA as well as the dominant business practices they encourage, the paper argues that the US is preferable for a business investment.

A political regime, by definition, refers to the type of governance prevalent in a country. It involves the set of all the political structures which make up a state (Gasiorowski, 1995, 882). The two common regimes in most states are the totalitarian and democratic regimes, which in turn disintegrate into unique governance systems that distinguish one country’s political system from another. For instance, although socialist-communist regimes like China are not clearly totalitarian, their push for a classless society limits individual freedom on economic engagements, thereby portraying subtle abuse of state powers. In this regard, most socialist governments have historically been ardent supporters of communist economic policies, which priotize societal needs over those of the individual. Accordingly, they implement economic policies that exert control over individual ownership of property (Jamali, Kirsten & Wunnava, 2007). Likewise, democratic regimes are generally capitalist in their economic agenda, which ensures a free playing ground in the economic set up.

Socialist regimes are generally known to adopt a communist economic agenda. Thus, as a socialist nation, the People’s Republic of China’s political organization is based on a powerful central government that controls all the major institutions of the economic sector (Zhao, 2008, p. 69). Perhaps due to its high population, China is founded on the Marxist ideology which argues for the collective and equal distribution of national resources. Economic control policies are very common in situations where the government intends to regulate socio-economic inequalities, especially in a diverse socio-economic environment (Fearon, 2003). Under Mao Tse Tung, China took a communist path which placed huge hindrances on entrepreneurship, which is a major element of capitalism. Thus, while the communist system exerts control over property ownership and investment, the capitalist model is liberal and non-restrictive over private control of property. The former favors a communal, collective ownership with the state at the helm of control, while the latter advocates for a free market in which the individual has unlimited rights to property ownership. Accordingly, a communist regime tends to be more repressive and conservative through the use of state apparatus to enforce public policies that regulate and control economic investment at both individual and corporate levels, thereby hindering the rate of investment and economic growth.

The free-market aspect of the US economy is reflected by the Forbs Fortune publications, which trace the richest men in the world and their geographical distribution. It is telling that a larger percentage in the hundred richest lists comprises of individual investors from capitalist countries, with the US at the apex. It does not concern the government that Bill Gates’ fortune is enough to feed millions of lower class families in America. The spirit of capitalism, as it were, is for the entrepreneur to maximize profits while meeting due obligations such as the payment of workers wages and government taxes. The overall effect of a free-market economic policy is ensuring unrestricted investment and high economic growth. At the same time, it attracts new investments while encouraging innovation, which contribute significantly to a country’s technological and economic advancement, as well as political stability.

In America, government powers are distributed equally among the three branches of the government, namely the executive, the legislature and the judiciary (Uphoff & Ilchman, 1972, 176). The executive power is exercised by the presidency, while the legislative power is exercised by Congress, and judicial power by the Supreme Court. Each of these three branches checks on influence of the other two over political and economic issues of national concern, with the effect that none enjoys more power than the rest as is the case in totalitarian regimes. Consequently, the lack of absolute powers on the part of the executive creates a political environment in which the rights of the individual are protected. Indeed, the US’s political system is molded around the famous Declaration of Independence document drafted by her founders, which emphasizes on the importance of individual freedom in the pursuit of happiness. This aspect (individual freedom) is imported into the structuring and organization of the US economic sector, which is generally liberal and free of government interferences over property ownership. For instance, land in China is owned by the state, unlike the United States, in which the constitution protects the people’s possession of property, including land. According to the Chinese constitution, all the land in the cities is under the ownership of the government (Ho, 2005, 109). Similarly, mineral resources, forests, land that is unclaimed, waters and mountains are owned and managed by the government. Granted, the US government controls most natural resources such as water masses and forests. However, the distinguishing factor here is the political ideology informing governmental control of natural resources. It could be authentically argued that the Chinese government, being a socialist-communist, is more interested in regulating the distribution of resources so as to avoid their accumulation in the hands of the minority (Barro, 2004). The US policy, on the other hand, is more geared towards preservation as opposed to managing economic inequalities. Similarly, the US government, by adopting a capitalist ideology, encourages the privatization of industries and other key investments (Stern, 2009, p. 78). This system allows the development of a vibrant private sector, which plays a major role in most countries’ economy.

Regardless, the superiority of the US in this regard is demonstrated by the federalist system, which grants a broader field of democracy by dividing regions into states, and then affording individual states some degree of autonomy, which is crucial in regulating trade within and between states. This model offers a an economic environment that addresses unique issues relevant to a single state, as opposed to the People’s Republic of China which enforces universal policies to all provinces. Generally, the US government encourages free trade, free markets, minimal interference in commercial activities and light taxation to its citizens. Thus, doing business in the US becomes easier since states are able to make economic reforms that are favorable to their residents.

Lack of a strong multi-party democracy makes China’s government resemble a one-man show, which can greatly dictate economic policies according to party interests (Woodward, 2004). The communist party dominates the Chinese government, with a higher percentage of governors belonging to the Chinese Communist Party (Wibowo, 2000, p. 23). On the other hand, the United States is an established multi-party democracy, with the Republican and the Democratic parties exerting relatively equal influence on national issues. Therefore, it is very unlikely that unpopular economic policies will be forced upon the people by one party. The tight rope upon which the Obama Health Bill walked before making it to Congress, and finally getting ratified shows how representative democracy in the US differs from China, hence affording a more reliable form of voicing the interests of various groups in society. This kind of system allows for the opposition to effectively keep a check on the government from time to time, therefore ensuring the smooth running of the government.

If ever love had a living definition, then Louise Erdrich captures it so succinctly in his short story, Love Medicine. He says of the higher feelings of devotion: It is “The spiked leaves full of bitter mother’s milk…….A buried root……A nuisance people dig up and throw in the sun to wither……A globe of frail seeds that’s indestructible” (Erdrich 284). Through a lively and vivid narration by Lipsha Morrissey about estrangement of his grandpa from the bosom of his grandma into the arms of Lulu Lamartine, Erdrich portrays the kind of love that cements relationships, and the tragedy of a passion that has lost its touch. Central to this weave of intimacy, however, are the superstitions that condition people’s beliefs and convictions about love in particular and life in general. The story strikes one as a piercing reflection of the centrality of superstition in religion and love, and their timeless relevance to all ages.

Via a two-angle perspective- modern Christianity and tradition, Erdrich examines man’s desperate situation not only in love, but in other aspects of life as well that makes him a blind seeker of divine intervention to straighten his path. Lipsha Morrissey believes a meal of geese heart will tie his grandpa and grandma together, for that’s where love lives; the villagers believe that Lulu Lamartine is such a man-stopper because her corsets and between her legs…..until it rattled grandma Kashpaw’s ‘goat’ as to make her think of a love medicine, and Morrissey to conceive of one in the shape of geese hearts eaten by both, to achieve the touch of intimate attraction displayed by their owners. If that is not magic and pure superstition, then religion, whether Christianity or the Indian Chippewa tradition is a lie- it is founded upon faith; ‘the belief against the odds, whether or not there is any proof” (Erdrich 277).

A clear parallel is drawn between man’s search for love and the religious beliefs that motivate him: that both are beyond human understanding…a buried root that at best, man can only dig up and make a nuisance of by throwing in the sun to wither……but nonetheless remains indestructible even in death. And so two related aspects about love and religion come alive: that although they are as meaningless as the ‘deafening Gods’ to whom prayers must be shouted, they are eternal and indispensable to man. What is really interesting is the suggestion that a deaf God is not different from a love medicine that doesn’t work.

The Christian belief in God is inspired by the same superstitious convictions that validate traditional beliefs in magic, such as in love potions. The fact that a Christian’s answers may go unanswered does not dispute the reality of God’s existence. May be the prayers did not reach Him, or perhaps they were not supplicated properly. Likewise to magic- in this case the love medicine concocted by Lipsha Morrissey on behalf of his love-struck grandma: may be it did not fail, it is only that grandpa choked and died before it worked. In fact so powerful was the medicine in this regard- at least grandma Kashpaw believed so, that it works even among the dead; for nothing short of its implied potency explains grandpa’s frequent visits to his beloved widow.

And this leads us to critical conclusion based on reality. America makes promises it cannot deliver- but nobody challenges its capability. May be God makes similar claims; promises He cannot fulfill, reason why prayers go unanswered. Nonetheless, the belief that He can gives people the fighting spirit to endure the trials of life. What is wrong with a similar belief in superstition? Whether it is a deaf God who hears no prayer or a concoction of dead turkey hearts that backfires, Love Medicine demonstrates that both provides the magic that gets the world going. All you need is some degree of faith, and the audacity to dare to belief.

Summary

The research study, “No Placebo Effect from Carbohydrate Intake during Prolonged Exercise,” was conducted to find out if a placebo substance- artificially colored and flavored water (PLA) had any effect on athletes’ performance- whether it improved performance in a prolonged exercise. The researchers hypothesized that “a placebo effect would be present, but nonetheless significantly less than the real effect of CHO intake” (Hulston and Jeukendrup, 276). Ten endurance trained cyclists were selected and subjected to the same experiment conditions- (time and environment) and a beseline WAT trial. During the experiment sessions which lasted 120 minutes each, with the last 60 minutes targeted as the trial time (TT), they were given three different drinks- plain water (WAT), colored and flavored water (PLA) and a carbohydrate-electrolyte solution (CES). The performance of participants who had ingested the PLA solution was compared against those who had taken either WAT or CES. It was found out that participants’ performance improved when they ingested CES, while there was no significant difference between WAT and PLA on performance. At the end of the experiment, it was demonstrated that “simply believing that one has received CHO does not improve performance during prolonged exercise” (Hulston and Jeukendrup 282), hence the conclusion that there is no placebo effect from carbohydrate intake during prolonged exercise.

 

Discussion and Critical Analysis

The reliability of the research findings is tied to the methodology employed by the researchers. By adopting a double blind approach, participants under PLA were not aware of its neutral effect, hence believed that they could perform as well as those under CES. This was significant in demonstrating the real effect of CHO intake as opposed to a placebo substance. Similarly, the random order in which participants for the PLA experiment were chosen ensured that the results were not compromised by participants’ knowledge of what they had ingested. Similarly, plain water served as a control by measuring the baseline performance of the participants, thereby helping the researchers to detect when the athletes’ performance improved as a result of either a placebo effect or the real effect of CHO.

The results of the study and its conclusions demonstrate that the mechanism of a real substance’s action (in this case the carbohydrate electrolyte solution) is different from a placebo. A placebo substance, properly speaking, is an agent administered with the purpose of deceiving the recipient of its effects, so as to condition him/her to respond or react in a certain manner. In this particular experiment, the PLA solution was the placebo used to make the participants believe that their performance will improve due to the beneficial effect of CHO (what they thought they had ingested) during prolonged exercise. By making them have similar expectations as those who had taken CHO, they worked out their best, to the limits of their efforts, beyond which point the real effect of CHO emerged by enhancing performance. The difference in performance between PLA and CES groups, and the latter’s relatively neutral effect in comparison to WAT proved that PLA did not have a placebo effect, even when the participants believed it was a real performance enhancer. This is due to the fact that while CHO contained significant amounts of glucose and fructose which supplemented the body’s glycogen reserves, the PLA solution was essentially as bare of nutrients as plain water.

This notwithstanding, however, the summative conclusions drawn from the experiment ignored the slight different between PLA and water (a 4.5 improvement compared to plain water), which suggests a considerable placebo effect achieved by the PLA solution. As noted before, a placebo effect is largely psychological, in that its real significance lies in what the participants think, rather than what they manage to accomplish on the basis of their belief. In the current experiment, it is evident that those who had ingested PLA believed they could improve in their performance as a result of the real beneficial effect of CHO supplements. Consequently, they were motivated and in effect performed a little better than those who had ingested plain water, because they lacked this motivation. However, the absence of carbohydrates in the PLA solution became apparent when their performance dropped before those under CHO, because motivation alone could not overcome the fatigue resulting from physical exhaustion, in which case carbohydrate supplements came in handy for those who had taken the real CHO supplement- CES.

In this regard, it could be argued that the marginal difference exhibited by participants when they ingested PLA in comparison to WAT manifests a placebo effect, the extent of the effect notwithstanding. Accordingly, one of the study’s major shortcomings is its conclusion, which ignores a very critical aspect of the study. By measuring the participants performance, the aim of the study was to investigate a psychological aspect, namely how the belief that participants had ingested a carbohydrate supplement influenced their performance.  By emphasizing on the physiological effect of CHO and its absence in PLA shifted the research’s focus a little bit, explaining the difference in the hypothesis and the conclusion. In fact, the findings of the research are more reflective of the hypothesis than they are of the conclusion, in the sense that PLA and WAT did not have similar effects per se. The difference, as argued before, is a result of a placebo effect brought about by the PLA solution.

In conclusion, the study was very spot-on with its hypothesis and generally accurate with its conclusion as demonstrated by the results of the experiment. The real effect of a placebo agent is mainly psychological, whose purpose is to induce a psychological response from its recipient. As pertains to athletics, performance enhancers have both a psychological and physiological effect, in that the athlete is first motivated by the knowledge of their benefit, and secondly through their metabolism which supplements the body’s energy reserves during prolonged exercise.

A critical issue that comes to mind at this point is the real effect of enhancement drugs such as aneroid steroids. While it is clear that they have no nutritional value and therefore do not add to the body’s reserves, it can be argued that their main function is to speed up the oxidation process of body fats and carbohydrates. This is the reason why they are common for short-duration athletes- since the body’s reserves get exhausted in prolonged exercise, hence nothing to oxidize or ‘speed up,’ for that matter. In this light, it is advisable for athletes, especially those involved in prolonged exercises, to choose supplements whose nutritional value is real and verifiable. In the end, as demonstrated by the research study, what matters is their nutritional contribution to body metabolism, and not the psychological conditioning of the mind. While a placebo effect-induced motivation is important, it cannot sustain the body’s physiological need when it is physically exhausted, hence the need for a real nutritional supplement.

 

 

 

 

 

Module 5

 

Journal activity 5.1

 

Describe the basic principles of Standard and Additional precautions, and explain why they are necessary.

Standard precautions are work practices in health center settings required to achieve basic levels of infection control, and are used in the treatment of all patients. Additional precautions are safety measures based on the mode of transmission of infection agents. They are used when patients are suspected to be infected with organisms.

Are Standard and Additional precautions applicable in all health care settings?

Both standard and additional precautions are applicable in all health care settings since transmission and contamination of infections is possible when handling patients and used medical equipment

 

Outline the procedure for a routine hand-wash.

1. Hands washed in liquid soap water for five-ten seconds.
2. Thoroughly rinsed with clean water.
3. Dry with clean towel

 

Describe the 6 step hand washing technique and comment on which steps are often omitted by health care personnel.

1. Palm to palm in which the two palms are rubbed together.
2. Right palm over left dosurm and vise versa, by rubbing one palm over the back of the second hand.
3. Palm to palm while interlacing the fingers
4. Rubbing back of fingers against the palm of te other hand while interlacing the fingers.
5. Rotational rubbing of right thumb clasped over left palm and vise versa.
6. Rotational rubbing of backwards and forwards with fingers of right hand in palm of left hand and vise versa (MacCulloch, 2000). The third, fourth, fifth and sixth steps are habitually ignored due to their tediousness, and partly because hand hygiene is sometimes taken for granted.

 

Create a table, using the following headings: hand wash type (ie. Routine/social etc), specific technique/requirements, duration, when used, rationale

 

Hand wash type	Specific Technique	Duration	When used	Rationale
Routine hand washing	Rubbing of palms in liquid soap water and rinsing	5-10 seconds	All routine procedures such as after contact with any dirty surfaces or handling dirty objects, before and after meals, after visiting the toilet etc.	To make the hand generally clean and free from germs, avoid ingestion of germs etc.
Hygienic hand disinfection	Washing with antiseptic by rubbing palms and back hand sides	15-30 seconds	During infection outbreaks, aseptic procedures and after contact with blood or body fluids	Destroy and reduce resident micro-organisms
Surgical scrub	Hands and forearms washed with antiseptic soap	Minimum of 2 minutes.Dry using sterile towel	Before invasive procedures	Removes transient micro-organisms  and has a longer effect (NSW Health Dpt)

 

 

What is the process to access hard/electronic copy of the applicable risk management standard for the health service closest to where you live?

Hard/electronic copies of risk management standard for health service are accessible in my area through online search engines and medical journal publications in local libraries.

Why is context important?

In health care settings, context is important in determining the nature of possible risks, and appropriate cautionary and prevention measures. It also helps to determine the extent to which health care workers are vulnerable to infection risks

What are the three elements essential for the transmission of infection?

The three elements essential for the transmission of infections are:

1. Mode of transmission.
2. Route of Transmission.
3. Host susceptibility.

List the factors that increase a patient’s susceptibility to hospital acquired infections.

1. Size of the facility-small size facilities that encourage close contact.
2. Admission of infected patients
3. Triage procedures.
4. Ward crowding.

Nursing staff alert you that the rural hospital has run out of single use gloves for inpatient areas, “the quota for the month has been used there is no more available”.  Prepare a case to negotiate with senior management.

Single use gloves are very essential in the daily procedures in a health care setting. There are high risks of contamination and infection through contact with body fluids, blood, mucous membrane and non-intact skin of infected patients. In this regard, this is very serious and urgent matter that deserves immediate consideration to avoid the spread of nosocomial infections

You have accepted a middle management position in a low resource health care setting. You note that after each surgical case the gloves are scrubbed, washed and reprocessed using steam sterilization. Comment on the appropriateness of this practice outlining suitable alternatives.

Scrubbing is abrasive and may cause tears. Steam sterilization is not effective for gloves since they are made of latex, which is affected by high temperatures. The appropriate alternative is to soak the gloves in a 0.5% active chlorine for 10 minutes, rinse in clean water, brush the internal and external surfaces with soap, rinse and then air-dry.

In what circumstances is double gloving appropriate?

Double gloving is appropriate in surgical operations involving sharp objects. This is to avoid perforation of the inner glove, thereby reducing risks of infection.

Accidental needle-stick injuries occur frequently in health care settings. Outline factors influencing self reporting of needle-stick injuries and suggest approaches to overcome these barriers.

Some of the factors influencing self-reporting of needle-stick injuries in health care settings include lack of adequate information among health workers on the risks involved, lack of health policies on reporting and the involvement of health workers in the sale of syringes for recycling. To overcome these barriers, educational programs should be conducted to health workers, develop an effective waste management system as well as the use of incineration and non-incineration technologies in treatment.

Outline the Australian standards management of a staff member incurring a sharps injury during a minor surgical procedure. The sharp was contaminated with the patient’s blood and they are a known intravenous drug user with negative HIV status. What is the supporting evidence?

The standard management is to remove gloves, clean the wound with a detergent and apply antiseptics to kill pathogens and avoid skin infection. Evidence of intravenous drug usage include skin popping due to drug injection into the skin’s fatty layer and extravasations due to seepage of drugs into the skin tissues.

Outline the responsibilities and risks associated with implementing additional precautions.

Implementing additional precautions require the provision of extra facilities such as single rooms, personal toilets and extra protective clothing. It also requires strict quarantine/isolation measures to avoid the spread of infections. The major risk associated with additional precautions is the possibility of psychological disorders on the isolated patients.

 

List the factors influencing staff compliance with implementing isolation appropriate to additional precautions required.

Factors that influence staff compliance with implementing isolation measures include:

1. The need to avoid the stigmatization of the patient.
2. To avoid situations of anxiety and other isolation-related psychological disorders in patients.
3. To avoid depersonalization effects by emphasizing on the physical care while ignoring psychological aspects of nursing.

 

Positive pertussis serology from a staff member employed in the nursery of the maternity unit has been notified to the Infection Control Team by the local public health unit.

Outline the response by the Infection Control Team.

__The response of the Infection Control Team is to restrict the particular ward to avoid further infections, carrying out serology tests for persons in the pediatric ward and finally carrying out an isolation exercise. Linen and medical equipment in the ward will be disinfected and sterilized, and nurses handling patients in the ward e required wearing protective clothing. 

Discuss the ethical issues.

__The ethical issue is the stigmatization that will result from the isolation of infected patients. The two competing values are whether to restrict the movement of a patient with a resistant infection which will affect him psychologically, or to priotize the well being of others who might get infected if isolation is not carried out. The overriding factor, however, is to strive to maximize good outcome while minimizing possible harm (Herwaldt, 1998).

Journal activity 5.2

 

Describe how you would sterilize a single-use only needle in a resource-poor setting.

1. Pre-disinfection by immersing in a detergent mixed with clean water.
2. Careful brushing of the instrument, especially at the pointed extreme.
3.  Rinse thoroughly in clean water to remove detergent.
4. Dry with a fluff-free towel.
5. High disinfection by immersing in a 0.1 % active chlorine solution for 20 minutes.
6. Sterilizing using saturated steam sterilization process. (Connell 2010).

 

Describe the steps in managing a spill of blood or body fluids in Australia.

1. Wear protective gear to avoid risks of body contact with blood pathogens.
2. Cleaning the spills with detergents and warm water thoroughly. Sodium hypochlorite may be used if necessary.
3. Disinfecting the whole area.

 

How would you sterilize instruments used in a neurosurgical operation on a suspect Crutzfeld-Jacob Disease patient?

Such instruments may contain infection agents that are resistant to steam sterilization. In such cases, a chemical sterilant should be used to kill pathogenic agents.

List of References

Department of Health and Ageing. Infection control guidelines for the

prevention of transmission of infectious diseases in the health care setting. Canberra, 2004

Gammon, J. The psychological consequences of source isolation: a review of

the literature. Journal of Clinical Nursing1999;8:13-21.

Herwaldt, L., M. D. Decker, Eds. A Practical Handbook for Hospital

Epidemiologists, Chapter 8 Ethical Aspects of Infection Control 1998.

McCulloch J. Ed. Infection Control. Science, Management and Practice.

London, Whurr Publishers Ltd. 2000

MSF. Infection Control in Health care settings. 2006. Retrieved August 12,

2010

Mujeeb, S.A., M.M. Adil, A. Altaf, Y. Hutin, S. Luby. Recycling of Injection

Equipment in Pakistan. Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology 2003;24(2):145-146.

New South Wales Health Department. Resources Packages: Hand Washing.

2010. Retrieved August 12, 2010 <

Whitby, R. M. and M. L. McLaws. Hollow-bore needlestick injuries in a tertiary

teaching hospital: epidemiology, education and engineering. Medical Journal of Australia 2002;177:418-422.

Speare, R., Connell, J. Infection Control in Healthcare Settings. School of

Public Health, `Tropical Medicine, JamesCookUniversity, Townsville, 2010.