Author: chris

The aim of scholarly writing is to present substantiated ideas that contribute to a given body of knowledge. As a medium of sharing knowledge, therefore, scholarly writing need to be presented in a factual, clear and concise, yet comprehensive manner to a selected audience (Shimomisse, 1996). Most importantly, it refers to the three components of scholarly writing, namely: sound evidence, specific audience and scholarly tone. With reference to the given text, the paper examines the author’s strengths and weaknesses in terms of scholarly writing, bias, opinion, quality of evidence, and appropriateness to its target audience.
The author’s scholarliness is reflected in the introductory sentence, as it provides the major thematic concern, i.e. the availability of personal computer. Additionally, the author explains why the achievement is significant, especially in the fields of education, commerce, and people’s lifestyles.
Nonetheless, the author fails significantly by ignoring the major elements of scholarly writing that defines a well researched, documented and clearly presented text. The text lacks substantiated evidence to support most of the stated claims. Thus, it is not clear whether the claims are personal and generalized opinions resulting from casual observations. The author’s claim that “there has been a widespread availability of personal computer in the past 50 years” is not supported with any research or authoritative source. To make a valid and scholarly claim, the important strategy is “establishing support by invoking an authority- calling in as evidence the thinking or research findings of an expert in the subject area” (Rosenwasser and Stephen, 2008, 117). Similarly, the reference to ‘an article in the Business Week’ as evidence that more than 80% of high school students had access to a computer is not an authoritative source, since it is not indicated whether it was an article expressing a person’s opinions, or the findings of a research study. In this regard, the author fails to fulfill one of the most central requirements of scholarly writing.
The author’s opinions seem to be biased and subjective due to the apparent lack of a scholarly tone. The rhetorical pose on the lack of discussions about the “digital divide” between those who could afford computers and those who could indicates the author’s lack of a scholarly approach to academic discourse. The question “And, in fact, why would there be?” clearly portrays a casual and informal perspective that appeals to personal opinions. Moreover, the use of a slang expression “plugged in” to mean access to computers is informal and devoid of a scholarly tone (Moser, 2009). And yet, as Eiichi Shimomisse observes, scholarly writing should be objective by comparing stated claims “with the neighboring or similar thoughts, or opposite ideas, so that you are prepared to show that these thoughts did not come to your mind out of the blue, but came through long, careful deliberation” (Shimomisse, 1996).
Another visible weakness of the text is the wild generalization of the stated claims. The accessibility of the personal computer is presented as a universal phenomenon. It does not specify the scope of the report contained in the Business Week to indicate its degree of representation. It should avoid assumptions by being concrete and particular, as opposed to abstract and universal. The clarity of scholarly writing is achieved when it specifically “tells who, what, where, when, and how” (Harris, 2006, 138). The author neither specifies where a study was conducted to reveal the increased access to personal computer, nor identifies who carried it out, and the reliability of the source.
Finally, the author fails to address a specific audience. Scholarly writing targets a particular audience in the subject area of interest, which guides the author in choosing an appropriate tone and relevant content (Richards and Miller, 2005, 195). In this text, the author does not indicate whether the audiences are computer manufactures, IT specialists or students. On the contrary, it addresses the general public, which is not a characteristic of scholarly writing.
In conclusion, the text does not reflect adherence to the tenets of scholarly writing. Despite a clear introduction, the attempt to provide evidence is shallow and un-authoritative. Furthermore, the author lacks a scholarly tone by being biased and subjective, besides failing to identify a specific audience.

The author of this article explores the theological role that the figure of Adam plays in supporting creationist theorists, and by extension Christians in their proposition that the universe’s origin is attributed to a divine source. He notes that science in particular, poses the greatest danger to the survival of Christian doctrines, by formulating an alternative theory to explain the origin of life and the universe at large. Singling out American intellectualism in scientific discourses such as the theory of natural selection, natural law theory, cosmological and biological evolution, John Shea argues that “America has offered to the theological debate about the origin of life a misleading montage of heresy and highly speculative scientific hypotheses.”
The claim on natural law as the pace-setter in the ordering of the cosmos rejects the church’s teaching that everything descended from the work of God. However, the unique design of the first man, Adam, contradicts the character of natural law, which is both random and unpredictable. In this regard, the figure of Adam within Christianity points to an organized intelligent Designer of man, if not the whole universe, which is reflected in the orderliness and conscious intelligent of man. The theory of natural selection provides a similar argument as natural law theory, by promoting the perspective that natural forces control and regulate the earth’s composition, by selectively determining desirable species that survive to give rise to future generations. Observable evidence in the variations among species to fit into their natural environment point to a process of natural selection, suggesting that science could be right . Nonetheless, it is the figure of Adam that refutes this argument, since he presents the exact nature in which man is said to have been originally created by God, the same nature in which he exists today. What this fact asserts, as John Shea observes, is the inability of evolutionary theory to account for the unchanged state of man since creation, thereby revealing its heresy.
Adam’s significance in explaining the origin of sin comes into play to dispute the evolutionary trend that sin reflects man’s animal nature, i.e. the tendency to behave savagery is a manifestation of hereditary genes from a common ancestor to all living things. Darwinism identifies violence, aggression and other expressive feelings as the common trait that we all inherited from ‘Grandfather Baboon.’ The fall of Adam, however, portrays the true nature of man as a being with a free will, with an inherent capacity to distinguish between right and wrong. Man’s autonomy in this regard, nonetheless, is exploited by evolutionists and natural theory proponents to account for the universe’s independence from the control of a divine being. They contend that since man has a free will, he is not subject to any higher powers, and therefore implies that he did not originate from any divine source, but by the same natural laws that forced God to allow evil and let the universe evolve by its own rules. Regardless, the redemption of the fallen Adam by grace through the death of Christ suggests that man is a beneficiary of divine benevolence, and as such, he is not absolutely autonomous, nor a product of the forces of natural law as claimed by science. Adam’s original sin, i.e. his desire to eat from the tree of knowledge, provides evidence that neither natural selection nor natural law could, by means of a Big-Bang-like accident, account for man’s intelligence, but rather points to a programmer of his nature, inevitably a divine God.

EVOLUTION VS CREATION
Payne, Barton J. “Theistic Evolution and the Hebrew of Genesis 1-2,” Bulletin of the Evangelical
Theological Society 8.2 (1965)

Barton Payne examines some of the inconsistencies in the creation story of Genesis 1-2, which both theists and creationists interprets to support their position. He identifies a number of Hebrew terms, whose translation into the English language presents a significant degree of ambiguity, hence different interpretations. The ambiguities resulting from the translation of the original Hebrew text suggest that Christianity’s support of a divine origin is not without loose ends. It leaves unanswered questions, especially in relation to the ‘how’ aspect of God’s creation. Payne observes that while the book of Genesis presents a creationist perspective on the origin of the universe and species, it at the same time reveals weaknesses that give weight to the argument advanced by theistic evolutionists.
The Hebrew term Way-yisér in Genesis 2:7 is translated to mean “God formed man. A similar term is used for other creatures, suggesting that the creation of Adam is not unique as taught in Christianity. It could give theists reason to dispute the creation story, since the phrase that describes the creation of animals refers to God’s command, which “brought forth” all kinds of animals from the earth. This might suggest an evolutionary process as opposed to instant creation. By extension, it could also imply a prior existence of Adam in another form, which evolved into a complete being at creation.
The element of time in reference to the day-sequence of creation could also mean a large time-span separating day one from day two. If that were the case, then it is conceivable to conclude that the periods between God’s days are marked by evolutionary processes . Central to this observation is the question of ‘how’ since Genesis does not explicitly demonstrate how God created things, i.e. whether He set into motion an evolution process that independently led to the emergence of different species, similar to the advances of Charles Darwin in The Origin of Species . The Hebrew term B’reshith, in Genesis 1:1, which means ‘In the beginning,’ is not specific whether it refers to the first day of creation, or to a prior period when God created the universe, the period in which it was without “form and shape,’ before the actual separation of the heaven and earth.. Whatever the case, the phrase implies that the earth existed before day one of creation, suggesting the eternity of matter and effectively, rejecting the view that God created everything .
The account that the created ‘kinds’ of species produce their ‘kinds’ does not specify the process by which God originally created them, i.e. whether by direct act or evolution. This raises doubt on whether He could have later preferred some changes on the created kinds, hence the need for an evolutionary process to take place. The curse to man after the fall that he will return to the dust whence he came from, hints at a process of gradual evolution that created a living man from lifeless dust.

THE THEOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF ADAM
Thesis Statement: Christian recognition of Adam as the first parent plays a significant theological role in advancing the relevance of Christianity

Introduction
Unlike politics which can change its face to reflect the socio-economic aspects of the day, religion is required to sustain a steadfast ideological stance in all circumstances. Perhaps this is due to the phenomenological differences of the two institutions: while politics is oftentimes shaped by the aspirations of a people, religion, on the contrary, is the agent that shapes people’s attitudes, beliefs and customs. As it were, religion is an inherent aspect of social life that is imbedded into a society’s culture, thereby making it a permanent entity in people’s lives.
However, the acceptance of a religion is determined by the appeal of its doctrines. Its survival is dependant on how relevant it renders itself in explaining different phenomena that affect people’s lives. It is on this aspect of attaining relevance that the significance of ideology and doctrine come into play in an attempt to promote religious agenda. In the face of opposing advances formulated by science to explain the nature of different phenomena, religion’s counter-responses have largely been a reference to divine powers as the designer of the universe and the forces that control it.
In this regard, nothing has been more controversial than the question on the nature and origin of human existence. Scientific speculations and research studies tend to appeal to the scholarly mind, given the fact that the conclusions which a scientific approach makes are backed up by evidential premises, most of which are observable and verifiable. Of remarkable influence is the theory of evolution by Charles Darwin, which postulates that humanity owes its existence to a gradual evolutionary process extending over several centuries. On the other hand, the Creationist approach contends that human existence is linked to a divine source, which authored the universe through creation. The effect of these two contradictory approaches is the emergency of various discourses that compete to overdo each other in explaining the origin of life in the universe, and by extension, the destiny of man. So controversial is the issue such that even within religion itself there exists rivalry explanations on the origin and destiny of human existence. Christianity, in particular, is pitied against intra-religion conflict, especially from Islam on the question of man’s salvation through the advent of Jesus Christ, whom it (Islam) dismisses as an imposter, but more controversially, as a mere mortal who deceived the world into worshiping him.
The impact of this scientific and inter-religious opposition to Christianity is the emergence of philosophical arguments in support of Christian dogma. Theology in particular, as a subset of the philosophy of religion, endeavors to promote the relevance and authority of Christianity in the face of diverse ideological oppositions. Needless to say, however, most theological propositions in support of Christianity are based on mythical reference to divine and historical figures as the entities that mark the beginning of human existence. Accordingly, the research paper examines the significance of Adam in informing theological discourse in relation to the origin and destiny of human existence. The paper advances the argument that the Christian recognition of Adam as the first parent plays a significant theological role in advancing the relevance of Christianity.
The Theory of Creation
The significance of Adam in theology is pinned on his assumed divine origin. The idea is that Adam was created by a divine being eliminates the prospects of questioning the truth of the argument, since divine powers are deemed to be beyond human speculation. Regardless, science tends to undermine Christian teachings on human existence, by the seeming lack of the cause-effect trend in the creation story. The common opposition is that if Adam was caused by God as postulated by the creation story in the book of Genesis chapters 1-3, then, in accordance with the laws of nature, there must be something else that caused God. it begs the question, “who created God before He was able to create Adam?” This approach exposes holes in the creation story, since it fails to account for the prior existence of the universe and its Creator. In fact, it stops at the first day of creation, failing to go beyond and explain how God came into being. It has been suggested that a creationist is like a traveler who boarded a vehicle, and upon reaching his destination, never concerned himself with the journey ahead. Likewise, upon reaching its goal of explaining the origin of human existence, the creation theory stops at the feet of an unexplained divine creator. In other words, the creation story is dismissed by scientists as incomplete for its failure to account for the origin of God.
On the other hand, science claims to put every piece of the puzzle into place through the cause-effect approach, which stipulates that the universe came into being by accident, and is since then controlled by self-moderating forces, namely the laws of nature. Thus, since neither Adam nor his creator is a consequence of the laws of nature, then the validity of the Adam’s existence is questionable, since the supposed creator could not be substantiated either. By casting doubt on the prior existence of God, Adam’s creation is doubted as well. In the long run of the debate on the origin and destiny of human life, the Christian belief in divine origin is shaken, thereby making even Christianity itself sound like a work of fiction, since the ideologies upon which it operates are seemingly wild theorizations. Consequently, to make Christianity a relevant and credible institution, it is paramount to promote the Adam myth, since its acceptance presupposes the recognition and acceptance of a divine Creator. In this sense, therefore, it can be argued that the significance of Adam in theological discourse is its indirect justification of the existence of God. If ever there was a created Adam, then the Creator must have equally been as real as His creation. On the other hand, if Adam did not exist, then the alleged creator is a myth as well.
Nonetheless, the creation story of Genesis identifies God as the uncaused cause of everything in the universe. The opening passage simply states that “In the beginning God created the heaven and earth the earth.” This statement does not raise questions on the prior existence of God, but rather assumes that He previously existed. In a similar pattern, the gospel of John asserts God’s existence prior to creation, by stating that “In the beginning there was the Word, the Word was with God, and the Word was God. …….. All things were made by him; and without him was not any thing made that was made.” The assertion by John eliminates any doubt about the divine origin of human existence, by pointing all creation to God. By extension, it places Adam in the center of God’s creation, thereby identifying him as the first parent of mankind, which in turn supports the Christian version of human existence. Adam’s theological significance, in this regard, is the placement of the universe in a divine origin, which counters the natural law and Darwinian accounts that identifies the universe’s chaotic nature as prove of its origin under natural laws. It particularly identifies the Biblical narration that the earth was originally without shape and form as evidence to the work of nature, since nature sometimes defies logical design. The involvement of a supreme being in the creation story makes it immune from logical arguments, which otherwise makes it unconvincing.
The story of Cain and Abel, Adam’s first descendants, presents a significant challenge to the Biblical account of the origin of human existence. It is narrated that after killing his brother out of jealousy, Cain was cursed and made to wonder into far lands. The twist of any harmony present in the claim of Adam as the first parent is the contention that Cain married while away and founded his own generation. This is inconsistent with the belief that Adam was the first man, and therefore it is not conceivable that Cain would have found a wife in the land he went to. This is because he was Adam’s first child, and there were no potential partner to marry, unless they were his sisters, which of course is not documented in the creation story. Otherwise, this could mean that there were other human before Adam, from whom Cain got his wife. It is at this point that theology comes in to re-examine the Adam version of mankind’s origin, and contend with the visible inconsistencies in the creation story of Genesis . The threat that Christianity faces is its survival if it is proved that the creation story is nothing more than a mythical rumor.
In theology, the person of Adam is employed to assign humanity an unquestionable source, which in turn could work for the benefit of Christianity. Adam’s significance in this debate is to serve as a reference point in Christianity’s quest to identify a ground upon which to make its argument about the origin and destiny of mankind. Without Adam, theological discourses in support of Christianity will fail, since they would lack a firm foundation. As noted before, Adam’s importance in the grand scheme of things is to justify the existence of God, and therefore add substance to the Christian beliefs and doctrines. Every phenomenon must have a background, and Adam in this case serves as the background of Christianity. There is always some beginning of things: Adam is the Christian believer’s earliest reference point, and therefore the foundation of what Christendom teaches and believes. As the Catholic Insight points out, “If Adam and Eve never existed, then Christianity is nothing more than a fable, useful perhaps for little children but to be rejected by adults.”
Darwinism
The Darwinian account of the origin of living things presents another antagonistic view to the Christian belief in divine source. In his book, The Origin of Species, Charles Darwin argues that life on earth began from low forms of organisms, which evolved into complex life forms over extended periods of time. The creation theory identifies man as a complete being from the start of life. On the contrary, the evolution approach presents man in different stages of metamorphosis, implying that man never existed as a complete being at once. The absence of divine intervention in Darwin’s evolution suggests that the universe is an independent entity operating under independent laws. This further suggests that there is no definite origin of life, but several possibilities that merge in the process of evolution. Christianity, however, does not operate on speculative claims, but rather on held convictions and beliefs. In this regard, Adam provides a definite reference point of origin, which is significant in strengthening Christian beliefs. Thus, as it turns out in theological discourses, Adam is a form of evidence to formulate arguments in favor of the Christian’s need to belief by faith as opposed to scientific-oriented evidence and reasons, since faith believing in the absence of reasons . He signifies the origin of life, thus presupposing a divine creator and effectively, justifies the recognition and reverence of a divine being (God) in Christianity.
Perhaps the biggest challenge to Christian theology posed by Darwinism is the claim of a common ancestry to all living things, including man. By tying human origin together with other living things, evolution theory undermines the uniqueness of man as the handiwork of God. The evolved species of man is inferior to the created Adam, which sets humanity apart from other creatures. Darwinism further lowers the status of man by linking his existence to low forms of life that existed many years ago, suggesting that man may have existed before creation, but in a different form . This gives the impression that God’s creation was a continuation of the evolutionary process that resulted in a complete man . Moreover, this perspective implies that the earth existed before day one of creation, suggesting the eternity of matter and effectively, rejecting the view that God created everything . The significance of Adam in theology, therefore, is to assert the dignity of man and his elevated position in relation to the rest of the universe. The biblical account states that Adam was molded by God’s own hands, and not a result of His verbal command that created the earth and other living things. This suggests a close tie or relationship between man and God, which in turn validates the reverence shown by man to his creator. The need to pay homage to God as practiced in Christianity finds relevance in the intimate relationship between man and God that is evident in the creation story of Adam. The evolved man, on the other hand, has no relationship to a divine being, hence is under no obligation to pay homage. In a sense, evolution denies the relevance of religion since its existence will be futile effort in the absence of a supreme creator. From a Darwinian point of view, a species that evolved through natural processes has no need of a religion that glorifies a non-existent divine entity. Further, the Darwinian claim about “survival for the fittest” suggests that nature, and not the hand of God is at work in determining the destinies of living things. Similarly, the idea that individual qualities are responsible for survival deny the benevolence and beneficence of God, and consequently makes the death of Christ irrelevant in Christianity’s understanding of salvation. But then, this is the kind of argument that theology seeks to refute, and in turn promote a worshipping culture.
However, to make a convincing argument towards this end, theology must not only find ground to dismiss the evolutionary perspective on human existence, but also present an alternative explanation that is in harmony with religious/Christian beliefs and teachings. Accordingly, the figure of Adam is significant in formulating a stance that emphasizes an intimate God-man relationship that warrants a sense of reverence from the latter. By determining that such a kind of relationship exist between man and God, theology exploits the creation of Adam to justify the place of Christianity in society. Without Adam, the assumed relationship will cease to exist, and by extension undermine the relevance of Christianity.
This notwithstanding, the supposed creation of Adam in the image of God underlies many theological perspectives on the debate about the nature of God. The notion of God as an alien and strange being is heightened by the mystery surrounding his nature, i.e. His awed omniscient-omnipresent qualities. However, Christianity’s teachings that God has a physical resemblance to man helps to demystify this notion and bring man into a clearer conception of His nature. This simplified understanding of God as man-like is founded on Adam, whom the creation account describes as the image of God. In the book of Genesis, it is written that “And God said, “Let us make man in our image, after our likeness.” This description about the creation of Adam contributes significantly to theological arguments that aim to define God’s nature.

Down and Out in Paris and London by George Orwell explores the nature and impact of poverty in society. It details the experiences of his travelogue from his native home in England to Paris, France, where he lived on the fringes of society as a restaurant dishwasher, the plongeur whom he says “are slaves of the modern world”. Back in London, he expects to land a respectable job, but instead he is plunged into the even rougher side of life: his prospective employer has traveled abroad, and consequently, he is forced to live as a homeless tramp in the streets of London. Orwell captures the universal reality of poverty and the fate of society’s poorest, whose lives could be best summed up as a hand-to mouth existence.
Out and Down in Paris and London has provoked diverse responses from different quarters, with some criticizing it for its over-exaggeration of the reality of poverty in general and demonizing restaurant work in particular. However, others have concurred with George Orwell’s portrayal of poverty in society, and the degrading effects it has upon individuals and society. William Vollman (2008), Poor People, say that poverty makes individuals to struggle in hopelessness and despair. In The Visible Poor: Homelessness in the United States, Joel Blau in defining demographic patterns, the poor are often labeled as society’s black sheep for being different from the rest (Balu 17). Allison Leff (2002) argues that it creates an ‘unequal society’, while Phil Bartle (2010) adds that by denying them self-reliance, poverty makes the poor to internalize negative attitudes that wounds self esteem. By examining the portrayal of poverty in Down and Out in Paris and London, the paper argues that George Orwell presents a realistic portrayal of the negative impact of material deprivation upon individuals’ sense of self-worth.
George Orwell portrays poor people as being of lower intellectual abilities since their reasoning is limited to the satisfaction of their baser needs. He asserts that their mechanical existence makes intellectual thought impossible. He writes that “Hunger reduces one to an utterly spineless, brainless condition” (Orwell 38). This lack of interest or the capacity to engage in abstract reasoning (i.e. not related to immediate physical satisfaction) on the part of the impoverished is also presented by Phil Bartle, who says that poverty denies them even the ability to reason for themselves. He states that “Poverty as a social problem is a deeply embedded wound that permeates every dimension of culture and society, which include lack of decision making ability, (Bartle, 2010). These arguments suggest that poor people cannot indulge in higher realms of thoughts beyond the needs of their stomachs, thereby degrading them to the level of animals. As demonstrated by the lives of the beggars and tramps in Down and Out, it takes the benevolence of society to put food into their mouth and the mercies of providence to shelter them form the cold of the night. In this light, the value of the poor as human beings is greatly compromised in that they are regarded as a burden to society.
Through the characters of Bori and Bozo, Orwell suggests that the condition of the poor, which is a perpetual condemnation to a life of servitude to society, makes individuals to regard themselves as worthless and insignificant. He writes in Down and Out that plongeurs and others of his station have got no reason to complain about their conditions, since it (their suffering) agrees with their station in society. In support of this view, William Vollman observes that material deprivation compels the poor to resign their fate into “the hopelessness and brutality of poverty” (Vollman 2008). On his part, Phil Bartle is more expressive in saying that “it is a “poverty of spirit,” that allows members of that community to believe in and share despair, hopelessness, apathy, and timidity” (Bartle, 2010). In this sense, the nature of poor people’s daily laboring, not to earn for purposes of saving, but rather for immediate consumption, indicates that ideally they have no future to speak of, since they don’t even reason about tomorrow. As it were, their whole being is with today’s concerns for food and shelter. Consequently, it encourages a negative perception of their significance and status in society, since they have no place in society’s quest for the finer things of life and a better future.
In Orwell’s view, material endowment, or lack of it, influences one’s moral attitudes. In Orwell’s Down and Out, the tramps have a similar view of their personality, which justifies their lack of gratitude as argued out by Bozo. He says that he is decent enough not to say thanks to a person who drops a coin into his begging bowl, and all beggars ought to take a similar stance. George Orwell captures this reality by noting that “Poverty frees the beggars from normal standards of behavior, just as money frees people from work” (Orwell xxiii). In this regard, the poor consider themselves incapable of maintaining standard behavior norms that reflect society’s values, since their socio-economic status renders such values irrelevant to their lives. The adoption of an antisocial attitude is shown in a research on the impact of poverty by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), which found out that hunger can create a rebellious character among individuals, as well as other psychological disorders. The report states that “Emotional consequences of food insecurity can include family tension, anxiety, low self-esteem and hostility” (Leff, 2003). This suggests that poor people, such as beggars and those dependent on relief assistance interpret their poverty as a symbol of shame and failure. In turn, it pricks their conscience in relations to their worthy as human beings

1. Discuss the differences among the concepts of nation, country, state, government, and nation-state. Examine the growth in the number of nation-states in the international community since 1648. Discuss the proliferation of states since World War II. Consider the large number of nations in relation to the relatively small number of nation-states. Consider how nation-states are evolving. Are they likely to become large regions or associations of states, or to devolve along linguistic and ethnic lines?
Differences among nation, country, state, government and nation state concepts
Nation, country, state and nation-state concepts are used to describe geographical sovereign territorial units. These terms are sometimes used interchangeably but usually they have varying meaning. The term nation is used to describe a group of people sharing common culture who are tightly held together by their common practices. This concept has a different meaning when compared with a state which is a term used to describe a political entity that is self governed. A country is a concept that can be used to describe the geographical region of a territory. It is at times used to describe the political distribution of an independent state (Bates, 48) . Generally, the concept of a country has a meaning that can be related with a government, state and a nation. The concept nation-state is used to describe a group of homogenous people sharing common religious, historical and language elements who have their own state. In some cases, a nation-state may be used to describe a group of multicultural society sharing common culture such as the United States which shares the American culture. The government concept is used to describe political unit organization that has powers to control the public (Linz, 27). A government develops public policies that it uses to control its member’s actions. A government can be used to describe local, national or even international administrative powers.
Since 1648 nation-states such as France, Germany and Japan have grown in different aspects (Lee, 71). The concept nation-state started gaining popularity in the 1600 when specific regions especially in Europe started working towards protecting their cultural beliefs. In 1648 most nation-states in Europe were experiencing separate growth. After the signing of the Treaty of Westphalia the states stopped supporting people with similar religion or cultural beliefs but rather the people started recognising the territorial jurisdictions only. Some of the nation states that developed due to this concept include the Germany and France.
Just after the out break of World War II, nations in different parts of the country formed unions which lead to the emergence of a state. These nations came together to protect their territories. After World War II these nations signed a proliferation treaty to remain as a state. The United States of America and the soviet unions are some of the states that were formed using this concept (Bates, 49).
In most parts of the world, the territories can be classified as nations rather than nation states. One reason for the large number of nation rather than nation-states is because it develops governing laws and systems that are fairly applicable to different communities. On the other hand, nation states are comparatively small because they develop unique government laws and system and even regulations that each member within the nation state is required to adhere to. Initially, the development of nation state was as a result of state of nature. Means of production and religious groups promoted the formation of nation states (Linz, 57). This concept has however evolved and currently territory sovereignty is used to describe a nation state. However there are high chances of most nations coming together to form states association especially due to the impact of globalization.
2. Discuss the difficulties of measuring power among the nation-states of the international system. Is Ray Cline’s conceptual formula a realistic one in a world of nuclear proliferation and militarized states? What components of Cline’s formula are most relevant in the power equation of a nation-state? What is a superpower? What is a middle power?
Difficulties of measuring power among the nation states of the international system
Most nation states use the concept of unipolarity when measuring power. However, this concept is faced with difficulties especially in the international systems which are not only influenced by power distribution but also states influence. International influence of nation states on economic, cultural and military makes it hard to measure power among nation states.
Ray Cline conceptual formula of power potential is not a realistic one in a nation under nuclear proliferation and militarized states. His formula of measuring power is not a realistic one because the concepts used in the formula may not always give positive results as expected in the conceptual formula. For instance, a superior country’s power may not always affect the power and actions of the smaller countries. In a world of nuclear proliferation and militarized states, power is not the sole policy determinant as indicated in Ray Cline’s conceptual formula.
Components in Clines formula that are most relevant in power equation of a nation state include C and W and to a small extend E (Guy, 234). Nation states equate their power based on the state’s population or territory and to a certain extend based on their economic capability (Linz, 43). In addition national strategies (W) can also be used to equate nation-states power.
Super power and middle power
A superpower in a nation or state is the power by a state to influence events in the world wide scale for own interests in the international system. Generally, a country that has superpower has the power to influence projects in different regions of the world. During the World War II for instance the United States and the British Empire were some of the states classified to have super power (Allan, 01). Middle power describes the ability of a country of largely or moderately influence projects in an international system. Middle power enables a country to have a certain degree of influencing international relations in the globe but without complete dominance in any given area.
3. Discuss how the basic political organization of a nation-state can enhance or complicate its economic potential. What advantages do unitary states have over federal states? Discuss the various types of federal systems introduced in the chapter. Which one most clearly resembles the unitary system and why?
The political organization of a nation state can enhance or complicate its economic potential based on the customs and regulations to govern the people. One strategy through which a political organization of a nation state can enhance its economic potential is through promoting the creation of infrastructure in order to facilitate trade and travel. Nation states political organizations such as in French have used this strategy to enhance economic potential (Lee, 84). Promotion of internal custom tolls by political organizations of a nation state can complicate its economic potential especially since it interferes with how the nation state conducts international businesses.
Advantages unitary states have over federal states
In a unitary state all its powers are based on the national capital unlike a federal state whose powers are shared by the central government and the state. As a resulted of undivided power a unitary state does not experience competition from different government sectors on power issues. Due to single source of power in unitary states, and reduced competition between the government and the states for power such states can easily regulate its commerce (Bates, 53). In addition, a unitary state enjoys simpler management of the state’s economy compared to a federal state since only a few people have the power on the state’s money unlike in a federal state.
Types of Federal systems
In this chapter coercive federalism, competitive federalism and permissive federalism systems have been discussed. In competitive federal system the government has the responsibility of downgrading the local government’s affairs. A coercive federal system on the other hand may allow the federal system to develop laws for the local governments. In a permissive federal system the federal government should permit powers and authorities for the local government (Guy, 176). Among the three federal systems described in this chapter, permissive federal system resembles the unitary system because the local government do not have any powers and authorities by themselves but rather work by the powers permitted to them by the federal government.
4. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the various types of economic systems employed among the world’s states. Suggest some of the ways that urbanization, industrialization, and communications alter political institutions. Is the GNP the best measure we can use to plot prosperity or economic decline? Discuss the political problems encountered by the trade-off between economic growth and sustainable environmental quality.
Types of economic systems and their advantages and disadvantages
There are over three types of economic systems practiced by the world states. The most common economic systems include the market economy, mixed and planned economy systems. In market economy systems the buyers and sellers are the key decision makers of the economy. State governments which use this economic system have minor role to play in regulating the state’s economy. One merit of this economic system is that it is least affected by political factors. In addition, this economy system provides equal competitive business opportunities thus lowering monopoly. However, this economic system may reduce the state’s development potential especially compared to the global market. A planned economy system allows the government to make all business decisions about production economy, distribution and prices (Lee, 37). One of the advantages of this form of market system is that the government can plan the state’s development strategy without interference from the market forces. However, this economic system is prone to political interference. Mixed economy uses the elements of both market and planned economy systems. The government and business partners have equal powers of regulating the state’s economic activities. This economic system is flexible thus development strategies can be alerted easily to meet the state’s interests (Guy, 213). However, this form of economic system can easily promote the formation of capitalism or socialist economic policies.
Ways urbanization, industrialization and communication alters political institutions
Political institutions are altered by industrialization, urbanization and communication systems because they are required to meet the policy challenges that develop due to transformation of these systems. Urbanization, communication and industrialization may interfere with civil rights, voting rights promote pluralism politics thus forcing political institutions to later their strategies to address these needs.
GNP in measuring economic decline or prosperity
Gross national product is one of the ways that can be used to measure a national income. This method measures the final value of expenditures of a state. This form is not the best measure in determining the economic prosperity or decline since it only factors incomes that are generated within the state and excludes income created outside the state. Thus this method of determining the economic status of a nation is not the best since it does not give the correct income generated figure was for a nation.
In most states, economic growth and sustainable environmental quality have a controversial relationship. The trade off between economic growth and sustainable environmental quality is faced with various political problems most of which are based on the need for economic growth rather than maintaining sustainable environment quality.
5. Is the military capacity of a state an accurate indicator of its ability to influence other states? What can be said about military power (hard power) vis-à-vis the totality of a state’s perceived strength? Identify the problems inherent in comparing national power on the basis of military indicators. Prepare a list of soft power strengths the state can cultivate to move from hard power towards peaceful strategies of resolving conflict.
Military capacity of a state is an accurate indicator of its capability to influence other states. Military capacity determines if a state can be classified as a superpower state or middle power states. In most states, the defence or military sector determines how powerful a state is especially in the international system. A state can use its military capacity to push other states to pursue its interests and goals. In addition, states with high military capacity can use it to punish any states that are non cooperative.
In most cases military power of a state can be used to describe the state’s totality of the state’s perceived strength. Hard power greatly determines the state’s perceived strength since it determines its ability to influence other states. One of the major problems of comparing national power with on military indicators basis is that it tends to overlook other aspects that are critical in determining the power of a state such as economic, political and cultural factors. For a nation to be considered as a powerful nation, it should not only have the potential of influence other states using military power but other forms of power such as economic. Both soft and hard power should be considered in determining a nation’s power. Economic and cultural powers are some of the soft power strengths that can be used by a state to cultivate peaceful strategies of resolving conflicts peacefully.
Chapter Four: Thinking about Government
1. Differentiate politics from government. Define the following 4 terms in relation to both definitions; (a) accountability, (b) constitutionalism, (c) popular sovereignty and (d) rule of law.
Politics and government
Politics is the process of managing the society through political institutions while government is a state’s institution that mainly creates and implements laws. While politics may involve everyone in a state the government involves only a few chosen people (Guy, 84). The government is formed as a by product of politics.
Accountability
Accountability is a concept that uses governance and ethical aspects in formulating its meaning. The government and political members are for instance required to be accountable to members of the public. In a government or political environment accountability is used to imply that the members are answerable to the public or legislative bodies formed to represent the public interest. According to Bates (57), political and government accountability is mainly regulated using a statute or the state’s constitution
Constitutionalism
Constitutionalism in any state is used to address the problems that can be associated with the state’s constitution. Politics play a key role in constitutionalism by advocating for the implementation of the law system while the role of ensuring that the laws are obeyed role is vested on the government (Lee, 16).
Popular sovereignty
Popular sovereignty also common referred as sovereignty of people is a belief of legitimacy by a state that its will is vested on people’s consent. Political institutions thus according to this concept holds the legitimacy of the state. The government on the other hand according to the concept of popular sovereignty is a servant to the state (Bates, 58).
Rule of law
The rule of law is used to define specific procedures in a legal framework that must be complied with. Politics ensure that everyone is subject to the rule of law even in authority. The rule of law acts as the government’s master.
2. Discuss the most salient attributes of democratic, authoritarian, and totalitarian governments. Why is Canada thought to be a democratic state? What makes China a totalitarian regime? Name an African and South American state that would represent the model of authoritarianism described in this chapter.
Salient attributes of democratic, authoritarian, and totalitarian governments.
Democratic, authoritarian and totalitarian governments use varying governing systems and their political institutions are organized to exert power to the citizens to a certain degree. Each of these government types has specific salient attributes associated with it. For instance, one of the salient features of a democratic government is that it allows its people to elect their leaders fairly. In authoritarian government, one of the main characteristics include the political power is vested on the leaders of a political institutions rather than the people. The political leaders are thus unaccountable to the people (Guy, 46). Totalitarian most unique salient feature is that the people do not have any powers. The government in this form of government controls the life of its citizens in all aspects including political and economic matters.

Introduction
Underwriting is the process which the large financial service providers like banks, insurers and investment houses utilizes to get the eligibility of the customer to achieve products like capital, equity, insurance, credit or mortgage. After striking the underwriting agreement, the underwriter bears the risk of selling the underlying securities. He also bears the cost of holding them on its books until the time in future when they are considerably sold. The company and the sponsor have the probability of conflicting interests concerning underwriting. The underwriters take all the shares left after the IPO in which the float is undersubscribed in return for negotiated fee which is usually 3 to 4% of the written amount. If the IPO describes that there are no other shares left, the underwriter has no liability to access any shares. This arrangement is recorded in the underwriting agreement (The College of law of England and Wales, 2000).
The Initial Public Offer (IPO) or flotation is the process by which a company becomes listed after undergoing the parallel admission procedure to contain it shares. Since IPO is a complex transaction, it requires good corporate advisers for successful float. Thus a year before the IPO, the company must consider carefully on the personnel to appoint as advisers, usually its lawyers and accountants. Any company seeking to float needs professional advice in association with the broad range of issues. The lawyers advising on the formal aspects of IPO form part of the considerable bigger team of advisers and each take responsibility for different aspects of float (The College of law of England and Wales, 2000). The lawyers advising on IPO cannot work in isolation and thus they need excellent project and communication management skills. They also require for excellent understanding responsibilities and roles of the other team.
The underwriter normally allocates some or the entire risks of the offer being undersubscribed to sub underwriters by a sub underwriting agreement in which the company is not the party to any sub-underwriting agreement. Normally the sponsor adopts the duty of underwriter. Occasionally, if the broker is different from the sponsor, he becomes the underwriter. Often the sub-underwriters are the other brokers, banks and the big institutional investors. There are normally two types of lawyers, from various firms which are involved in flotation and are specialists in corporate finance. One team deals with advising the company while the other advises the sponsor. Both the teams work closely to offer the seamless service. The need of the two teams mirrors the fact that there are issues on which the company and the sponsor conflict, although both have the common aim for successful IPO (The College of law of England and Wales, 2000).
The sponsor owes some responsibilities to FSA which the company does not owe. The sponsor is highly sensitive concerning the risks of being engaging with unsuccessful IPO, or that which generates awful publicity and the effect this it has on its capability to get its future work. Thus it wishes to exercise for more cautious approach than that of the company in particular areas (The College of law of England and Wales, 2000). The sponsor and the company are also more probable to conflict on the interests concerning underwriting. In addition to the company and sponsor lawyers, there can also be other lawyers who represent any selling shareholders when there is the conflict of interest amidst the company and those shareholders. If there exists no conflict, the company lawyers may also act for the selling shareholders.
The lawyers of the company draft the entire documentation concerning the IPO. This involves the prospectus and also the ancillary documents, alongside any preparatory documentation needed to restructure the company like changing of articles of association, re-registering of the company as public company and drafting the new service contracts for directors. The lawyers of the company are also accountable for verification process. The sponsor lawyers work together with the company lawyers to negotiate the agreements amidst the sponsor, the company and the shareholder, for instance the underwriting agreement. The company lawyers have the basic responsibility of processing IPO documentation while the sponsor’s lawyers contribute towards the drafting (The college of law of England and Wales, 2000). This assists to keep a close eye on the company’s lawyer’s advancement concerning the legal documentation and verification exercise on which to advise the sponsor appropriately.
The main marketing document of the float is the prospectus and this ought to have substantial amount of information concerning the company. The directors have the primary accountability for accuracy of that information. This requires them to enlist assistance of the company secretary and the main managers to locate and offer to advisers the prospectus and the precise information concerning the company. The company requires the sponsor as well as he owes duties to FSA and the firm takes up appointments once the sponsor is contented with the company suitability for listing. The sponsor guides the company and its management during the flotation process and advises the company on the Listing Rules interpretation. It liaises with FSA and to smaller extent; the Stock Exchange on behalf of that company relays any comments back to the company. The sponsor likewise coordinates the advisers’ team and advises them on the IPO timetable. The lawyers have the day to day contact with the sponsor during the flotation progresses. As usual the investment bank, accountancy firm or the stockbroker shall adopt the duty of the sponsor though it has to be approved by FSA.

Description
Booming Boutique is a retail establishment that will open in July this year. It is a woman-owned business currently organized as a Sole Proprietorship. It will be located in downtown Pleatsville, Florida, a popular tourist and retirement destination. Though the initial goal is to initially open one boutique, expansion plans include building a well-recognized brand name and franchising the retail store. This will in turn help to penetrate a substantial portion of the online retail market.
Executive Summary
Booming Boutique will carry designer and contemporary apparel as well as accessories and will exclusively be the U.S home of the Dutch line, De Kliek. In addition to this line, we booming Boutique will feature other selections by European and American designers such as Tosca and Herr Frau. Through extensive research, we intend to follow the overly youth focused fashion and retail industry and tailor our inventory to meet the unique needs of our clientele. By following our customers’ purchasing preferences, we aim at focusing on styles, fits and colors that flatter our wide range of customers and making the meeting of their personal needs our specialty.
We intend to provide our customers with unique and innovative services such as personal shopping, special ordering as well as Style Assessments done by style concierges trained within the Image Industry. Style Assessment, our major innovative service will help our customers develop their own personal styles and enhance our reputation as a truly unique retail store.
The store will be financed with $20,000 of the owner’s money with additional $40,000 from a business loan. Sales are estimated at $ 150,500 per year by the first year with a positive cash flow being produced by this time.
Introduction
Our goal is to find customers and keep them coming back by helping them improve their look without necessarily having to buy a whole new wardrobe, by helping them purchase clothing and accessory pieces to add to what they already have. As a result, customers will rely on our expert advice on their personal styles which will help establish a strong clientele. This will help customers save money while at the same time enjoy shopping in a well inventoried and service-minded store. We will cater for all types of customers for all occasions and provide unique clothing pieces and accessories.
The total sales reported in the United States retail industry in 2009 including automotive and food service was estimated to be over $4.5 trillion. In Pleatsville, the current population is around 40,000 with 54% of this population being women with a median age of 40. With majority of the stores focusing in youthful, we seek to tap into this population with a larger focus being on the mentioned group. Though we will initially seek local customers, we aim at increasing our reach as we continue building our brand and securing our image.
With over 10 years experience in marketing and retail and a degree in finance from Yale University, the owner, Michelle Bell has gathered the necessary required to complement and grow the business. The research and advisory team holds expertise in retail merchandising and accounting, legal contracts as well as fashion and design. Plans are already on schedule with a detailed project plan already created. Based on the data collected from the research, preparation for the buying for the winter season is underway with the marketing elements and store design currently being finalized.
This business project is set to be started out with a lot of research. The first step will be to acquire information about the fashion and retail industry in this state as well as its influencers. In order to conduct the research, we will design a questionnaire guide that will cover all the variables and collect all the data needed in fulfilling our research objectives. This is bound to be an imperative task as the questionnaire is not meant to disclose the purpose of the visit to the subjects but at the same time prompt them to answer accurately as they form a pivotal part of this project. This research is aimed at giving significance to three attributes: obtaining feedback, identifying the influencers, Booming Boutique Vs other retail clothes stores in Florida.
Interviews will also be conducted from the general public and other retail clothing store shop owners. These interviews will be conducted in the major areas of Florida and will be analyzed with the objective being to identify the clothing needs of majority of the population. Analysis will also include general inferences drawn from personal observations as well as responses given during the survey.
Research will also include collecting already existing data from fashion magazines, books, as well as the internet which will be carried out by the research team. This will carefully be evaluated as it will also be used in decision making.
The web plan Summary
Booming Boutique plans on simultaneously holding the official launch of the boutique with the launch of its website. This site will serve as a source of information for online visitors and will also include the development of editorial content. By the end of the second year of operation, Booming Boutique will have worked out strategies on the inclusion of e-commerce into its business model.
The website will be developed so that users can have all information they need and will feature the unique services as well as key items in the boutique. Reservations forms for Personal Style Assessment and Personal Shopping appointments will be available from the site.
The website will leverage the brand personality and corporate identity of Booming Boutique- elegant and simple. The nomenclature will mirror Style, Concierge and About, the ideas which will be articulated throughout the boutique. The overall strategy of the website will be to provide the users with a clear and simple architecture that will allow them to obtain all the information they may need.

Mission
To offer our customers with quality, well-constructed fashions in an assortment of styles and sizes that accommodate all varying body styles and shapes.
To offer top-notch exclusive and innovative services that will generate buzz and create and boost sales.
Vision
To deliver quality products and services to our customers as well as maintain financial balance.
We also seek to provide fair compensation and a rewarding work environment to our employees, ultimately providing a fair return to our owners and an excellent value to our customers.
Objectives
To create an elegant yet comfortable shopping environment that caters to the clothing needs of the whole population, regardless of age, size or gender.
To earn 75% market share and become the leading retail clothing store in Pleatsville, Florida and achieve name and brand recognition within the local community.
To have a customer base of more than 1,500 customers by the end of the first operating year with a profit margin of 50%.
Proposed Products and Services
Booming Boutique will offer designer fusion lines as well casual clothing for the whole family. With our ready-to-wear lines from De Kliek, Herr Frau, Tosca and other American and European labels, we offer to provide a variety of clothes with different styles to fit our target market base. A greater majority of our merchandise will be in apparel, with hats, gifts and accessories from other lines such as Achoo Panto, Vince and some of our branded items.
We also aim to offer exclusive personal services such as Style Assessment, a one-page quiz developed by Booming Boutique’s owner, Michelle Bell that will help people; especially women determine their appropriate personal styles that match their personality. The assessment will help a customer develop their personality by providing style words to choose from along with tips on what clothing works well with their personal styles.
Organizational Structure
Being a small business, Booming Boutique requires a simple business structure. Michelle Bell, the owner will make all decisions which will be in-line with the company’s objectives. Tasks will be delegated to employees based on their creativity, level of expertise, strengths and weaknesses. Employees will benefit for a one day paid holiday every month and a one week long vacation every year. Medical benefits will not be offered to employees at the beginning but as profits increase medical as well as other benefits will be offered to all employees.
The general manager, Chandra Miller will be responsible for inventory control, administrative functions as well as purchasing and promotion. With her extensive background in purchasing, she will also act as part-time sales representative. They will also be helped and advised by a team of advisors who will also be responsible for carrying out the research work.
Expected Revenues
Booming Boutique aims at bringing in annual sales of $500,000 with an operating profit margin of about 25%. Gross margins are expected at 51%, which though is 5% higher than the retail industry average, is in lie with the retail boutique averages. Overall, we project to reinvest net profits of 10% into the company for growth initiatives and service enhancements.
Due to the cash-based business of Booming Boutique, cash flows within the first year of operation are expected to be positive. The store is hence expected to remain very liquid, with no Current Liabilities with startup costs estimated at $60,000 with more than half of these costs going to startup inventory.
Market Position
Booming Boutique is a business-to-consumer retail company with our target customers being the locals as well as the tourists. With our peripheral products such as scarves and handbags, we are likely to attract younger women. It’s important that we do not offer products that are only exclusive to the older audience hence a portion of our products will be tailored to catch on the younger generation.
Pleatsville is a retirement destination hence majority of the population are in their mid 40’s and late 50’s. This group is more conservative and values convenience, uniqueness and quality with price being a major factor in decision-making. At the same time, they are a generation of the “buy now and pay later” philosophy hence it will be difficult to implement a cash-based approach.
Relevant Competitors
There are no direct competitors in Pleatsville offering unique services such as ours. There is only one super-store within a 50-mile radius of Pleatsville which is similar to Wal-Mart as it sells lesser quality items at a lower price. The two chain department stores sell men’s, women’s and children’s clothing along with electronics, home accents and appliances.
Though familiarity is comforting, research indicates mounting frustration with the subpar customer service, vastness and inferior quality of super-stores. Not to forgetting the lack of selection and inept sales staff often found at departmental stores.
The lack of a similar store in Pleatsville as well as the vast experience of the managing team is therefore a distinct competitive advantage for the store. Though there is no guarantee that a competitor will locate within the area, there is no doubt that the quality products and outstanding customer service will quickly establish the boutique as the ideal place to shop for clothes.

Every good story told is like a coin, it has two sides one which is a good side of and the other is the bad side of it. This arises due to the writer’s way of thinking and what the writer expected to portray to the readers about the story. To support my argument above, I will focus on a story which brought a lot of critisization on the tactics the Spokane newspaper tried to proof that Spokane Mayor Jim west was luring young gay men into sexual relations.
Spokane newspaper got stories that in early 80’s and 90’s two adults by then children were molested and sodomized by Jim West now the Spokane mayor and his friends. In recent times the mayor have been having affairs with young boys in gay.com website. For the newspaper to prove these allegations, they employed a computer expert to disguise himself as an 18 years old guy and try to chart with the mayor. The expert did start charting with mayor and was even offered internship. This story is greatly criticized and scrutinized by Dan Richman.
On my refutation point of view I would really want to blame the writer of the story by being judgmental in his writing as reaching at conclusions without knowing what really happened. To support my point, the writer did criticize the paper for going beyond their mandate to just report what they find out.As went further and acted as investigators. He does not believe on their point that they only employed the expert to look into matters if the mayor Jim West was really using chat rooms to chat with gay men but not to disguise himself as a young gay man to lure the mayor into trap. Moreover, the writer goes further and asks questions that are meant to lure the readers to look at the matter as he himself see it instead of just writing a journal that will give readers freedom to judge the story by themselves.
The story from my view is improbable because the two adults that accused the mayor of molesting them were convicts and could be out there to ruin Mayor Jim West’s name. To add on that the story is also illogical as how could the mayor support anti-gay campaign while he was a gay? On inconsistence point, from early 90’s to when mayor was accused by the two men, how come there is no others accusation on him of molestation. The inconvenience is that if the expert went beyond his work duty, how come the paper published what he found out on his off duty work? Lastly, Unprofitability of the story is what was published was Jim West private life and that not any of our concern.
On my confirmation point of view, the writer did usually emphasize on the need of ethics in organizations for the benefit of all and also he goes on to point out the unethical actions that the paper did. The writer asks questions if the ruse is justified, if the mayor did misuse the office power, the reason that made this issue make the mayor a hypocrite and if Spokane paper did act ethically. Moreover he tries not supporting any side fully.
The story might be probable because the mayor agreed he do visit gay sites hence he might be a gay. On the logicality of the story, for the mayor to be going in gay sites, he must be having interest to have an affair with gays. Consistence and how proper the story is, the expert did get involved in romantic texting with the mayor and the mayor was still in gay affairs in 80’s hence the mayor is a gay. The convenience of the story is that the people of Spokane needed to know the kind of a person they had as their mayor.profitability of the story is that the mayor would from that day do his work the right way as he now knows the consequences. On my conclusion, the story clearly has its pros and cons but I do believe the advantages of the story and the writer critics do outdo the disadvantages.

Global warming has been defined as the increase in the mean temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere since the mid twentieth century and its projected increase. This has been attributed to the increased concentrations of greenhouse gases resultant from human actions such as the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation. However, the overall effect due to increased atmospheric aerosols has been self-regulated by global diming in which these aerosols block the sun’s rays from reaching the earth’s atmosphere. Projections by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change state that temperatures are likely to rise in the 21st century from 1.1 to 6.4 °C (2.0 to 11.5 °F). However, these estimates may be biased since there are differing estimates in the sensitivities to the effects of greenhouse gases and future predictions in greenhouse emissions.
It is projected that these increases in global temperatures are like to cause higher sea levels, changes in precipitation patterns and climate and the expansion of tropical deserts. These effects shall be most widely felt in the Arctic such that glaciers shall retreat while permafrost and sea ice are expected to reduce. Other projected effects are the increase in intensity and frequency of global environmental disasters attributed to weather; reduced agricultural yields and extinction of species (Dimento, pp.68).Already, acidity in oceans has been observed to be rising, a sure sign in support of global warming. There is a general consensus by scientists that global warming is real. However, this does not imply that the end to this controversy is in sight even after such world wide events as the Kyoto Protocol, ratified by 187 nations, takes place. This disputes range from the nature, causes and consequences. The most disputed issues are the global average air temperature especially in comparison to the Middle Ages which signify the temperatures in the world today are still lesser than those in the past; humankind’s contribution to global warming and the validity of estimates in climate sensitivity that shed light on future situations. (Boykoff, pp. 125-136)
There are various reasons that have been put forward by the United Nations’ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). These are based on over 100 physical processes and 450 biological findings. First, in the Russian Arctic, soaring temperatures are leading to the melting of the permafrost resulting in the slump of 5 story apartments. Precipitation, such as rain, has intensified, resulting in severe floods and storms, while changing climatic conditions have been recorded whereby rivers freeze late into the season. Secondly, there is a general consensus in predictions that in the 21st Century, temperatures shall rise to 5.8°C by 1.4 °C. This shall change earth circulatory and regulatory systems such as the ocean circulation, hydrological, nutrient and carbon cycles. This implies a total change in natural ecosystems that are vital in the provision of basic living things needs such as water and food. Further, environmental problems will arise such as ozone layer depletion, decline in availability and quality of water, urban air pollution such as in Los Angeles and Toronto and natural loss in forest cover due to aridity coupled with deforestation. There is widespread evidence that the United States can no longer avail sufficient water for its citizens and is already negotiating for water deals with neighboring Canada. This shall not only lead to the extinction of major world species but it shall also pose a danger to mankind’s existence in such a volatile environment.
Secondly, it has been documented after recent in-depth research on polar ice that The Arctic and Antarctic are warming up more rapidly than estimated. This has the merit of expanding seas and oceans for navigation by ship. However, the demerits far outweigh the merits. It shall lead to rising water levels in the oceans with a potential of submerging low-lying islands and coasts thereby widespread losses not only in financial terms such as infrastructure and habitable land but also in natural and indigenous species found in such areas. Based on the findings by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, coastal shorelines are eroding at a rate of one to four feet per annum. This presents tangible evidence in support of global warming. A cognitive example is the Cape Hatteras lighthouse located in North Carolina. It was built in 1870 at 1500 feet from the shoreline. Over a period slightly more than a century, this distance had reduced to 160 feet from the shoreline prompting relocation in 1999. Generalizing this concept, the United States has approximately 95,000 miles of shoreline, which has provided homes for more than 50 percent of its citizens since 1960 (Weart, pp.6)Therefore shoreline erosion, as attributed to the rising oceanic water levels, poses a serious threat. Further, receding permafrost layers shall also be detrimental in that animals such as polar bears, walruses and seals that predominantly depend on this ice levels shall be faced by extinction. This shall not only lead to large losses in biodiversity but shall also lead to a pit in the balance of certain ecosystems. Indigenous people, who chiefly depend on ice, such as in Alaska, are already being affected since they can no longer conduct their fish hunting and food gathering activities as in the past.
Thirdly, flooding has been brought about by the heavy and unusual precipitation. Already in British Columbia, parts of Canada, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Russia and Eastern Europe have been adversely affected by these heavy rains. Peak stream levels, previously experienced in spring, have advanced into winter due to heavy rains that are not letting up to snow that is characteristic of the winter season.
Fourthly, global warming has resulted in massive changes in the climatic situation in tropical lands. Long periods of drought have been recorded in the near past, a shift from the previous heavy rains experienced in the tropical equatorial climate in areas such as Senegal and the basins of Niger. There is danger of extinction of vast water resources such as Lake Chad whose waters have declined by a percentage estimated to be between 40 – 60%. The resultant situation, aridity and desertification, is already expanding at a higher rate in the tropics, wiping out vast resources of water, and along with it, endangered animal and plant species. It is estimated that 25% of mammals and 12% of birds are facing complete and rapid extinction in the next five years. Changes in the food chain supply attributed to the ongoing greenhouse effect has placed 89% of these animals are at an extremely high risk.
The fifth reason as to why global warming is real has been evidenced in the reducing production levels. Increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere have led to the diminishing protein content in wheat and rice. Further, the little food produced is under threat from the spreading pests and diseases. This has been especially the case in wheat whereby wheat rust has become a dogmatic and incurable disease that has led to vast losses. Productivity in the United States grain belts, and those in Australia and Asia have been observed to decline marginally. It is projected that the warmer temperatures likely to be experienced in future coupled by the increasing evapo-transpiration rates shall reduce agricultural yields to two-thirds of the current output. In the tropics, irrigation has become expensive due to the scarcity of water resources rendering it out of reach for farmers. Further, crops in these areas are deemed to be at their maximum temperature tolerance beyond which they cannot survive.
The sixth reason in support of the global warming concept is the current wave of heat waves that have been so far experienced in Greece and Russia; cold snaps, intense floods, droughts, highly destructive hurricanes, high pollution rates and allergens. Not only shall there be increased widespread financial losses but also an increased compromise on air quality thereby leading to a diverse range of illnesses in the populace. It is vital to note that costs attributed to global weather disasters has increased from $3.9 billion United States dollars to an estimated $40 billion in 2000. The frequency and intensity of such risks as floods and wild fires due to heat waves has rendered them uninsurable. Tsunamis and earthquakes such as the recent occurrence in Haiti are expected to increase in intensity and severity. This is since glaciers exert immense pressure on the earth’s surface and weigh over 1 ton per cubic meter. If this pressure reduces due to the continuous melting, this shall be released explicitly through tsunamis, volcanoes and earthquakes. A look at the 2004 Hurricane Katrina and the 2005 Asian Tsunami are evidence enough in support of this.
However, despite the multiple reasons put forward that global warming is real; opponents to this concept have put forward various reasons that negate the existence of this principle. First, most scientists do not believe in the existence of this concept. Over 17,000 scientists are signatory to a petition disseminating from the Oregon Institute of Science and Medicine which states that there is no substantial scientific proof that human activities that lead to the release of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane shall cause catastrophic heating in the earth’s atmosphere in the near future. Surveys conducted by climatologists are in support of this statement rendering the claim on global warming null.