Author: chris

Introduction

Charles Darwin was among the first people who came up with the theory on the origin of species that was published in the year 1859 on 24^th November which subsequently led to a controversial debate that took place in the year 1860. Thomas Huxley was one of Darwin’s close associates whom he had shared his theory before it was published and was among the people who participated in the debate (Hesketh, 2009). The contrasting difference between Huxley and Darwin was what was at the centre of attention; this made the British Association for the Advancement of science to convene a meeting that was held at the new Oxford University Museum of Natural History in June (Seegert, 2010). It took place after the publication of Charles Darwin’s book titled the origin of species. Some of the participants in the debate included several British scientists and philosophers who came to listen to these two great men defend their positions.  They included Samuel Wilberforce, Benjamin Brodie, Joseph Dalton Hooker and Robert FitzRov. It is one of the most remembered debates due to the heated exchanges that took place. Wilberforce purportedly asked Huxley whether it was through his grandmother or grandfather that he got his descent from the monkey. Huxley replies by saying that he is not ashamed to have a monkey to be his ancestor (Thomson, 2000).

Thomas Huxley was one of the advocates for Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection. Initially, he was an opponent of any evolutionary theories and believed that the living world had been the same since time immemorial and that the modern would still be found in the old rocks. He changed his perception later on when he wrote the book how stupid of me not to have thought of that. During the Debate, his opponent Archbishop Samuel Wilberforce who was coached by Richard Owen, ridiculed, laughed and asked Huxley if he was a descendant from the apes from the grandmother’s or grandfather’s side. Huxley answers him saying that, he would rather be the off springs of two apes than to be a man who is afraid to face the truth. All accounts of the debate that have been put across say that Huxley defeated Wilberforce in the debate. In his argument Huxley does not blindly follow Darwin’s theory giving it the necessary critic it deserves besides defending it. He says that Darwin had seen the evolution as a slow, gradual and continuous process; Huxley thinks that in an evolving lineage, there must be some rapid jumps and changes that occur in the process of growing (Seegert, 2010). Huxley goes on to present his evidence of human evolution arguing that the brains of humans and were fundamentally and basically the same in all aspects of the anatomical details (Thomson, 2000).

According to Wilberforce and his colleagues, three points come out exclusively. The first is that over the course of human history, there was no evidence whatsoever of new species that was developing. The second point is that selective pressures have an effect on the human species. Lastly, the third point is that the phenomenons of the sterility of the hybrids that are told only favor the fixity species that exist (Ruse, 2001). On the first point, he is right while on the second and third he is wrong. For instance, he says that horses, dogs and pigeons have selectively been bred for many generations yet there different breeds still remain fertile and are liable to slip back to their original state. In his argument Wilberforce goes on to say that the obvious changes that are found in the phenotypes are less significant compared to what Darwin claims (Smout, 1998). He adds that species are genetically very stable than what Darwin said.  Family resemblances between different species are fully recognized, this does not mean that they had automatically evolved from one another.

Sir Joseph Hooker says that the debate that took place was of no small importance in the career of Huxley, not only did Huxley save a great cause from being ridiculed but helped to seek attention for it to be heard in the public domain.

Conclusion

It therefore goes without say that Darwin’s theory is only but a hypothesis and not a theory. Darwin’s theory can only be a real theory if he provides and produces and explanation of how the organisms of a given species could evolve into that of another species (Hesketh, 2009). Huxley believed that human species originated from apes evolving from stage to stage to where they are today while Wilberforce believed in a scientific evolution. Wilberforce speech did not favor the Darwin’s theory of evolution but succeeded a great deal in challenging and giving new ideas to the evolution of human species. His arguments brought forward a serious argument which according to Tuckwell and Hooker was effective and did not meet Huxley explanations (Smout, 1998). Just like anybody else, Huxley was also confused on some of the finer points that scientific methodology had in place. In a nutshell, the debate provided an avenue for more critics on the differences between the creationists and those who believe that evolution is a reality.

 

The issue of capital punishment in United States has been the subject of discussion for a long time and it continues to raise controversies up to date.  The group that supports capital punishment maintains that it is important to protect citizens from the act of criminals but at the same time, the Criminal Justice System ought to ensure that innocent people are not convicted.  On the other hand, the other group argues that capital punishment is not only inhuman as it violates the rights of individuals but also it does not solve the intended problem.  Consequently, the government in United States has been trying to come up with different ways of conducting capital punishment to ensure that the victims are subjected to the least possible suffering during their death.  However, even in that case, the main question is whether United States should continue to use capital punishment (Oppenheim n. d.). With that background, in mind this paper argues against capital punishment especially in response to the use off lethal injection.

            There are many reasons why capital punishment should not be used but the fact that it is inhuman stands out among the rest. Many procedures that are used while conducting capital punishment have proved to be inhuman no matter the precautions taken. For instance, recently, Times Editorial (2007) illustrated that use of lethal injection which was thought to be more humane proved to be inhuman as well.   In an execution which was carried out in December involving a person known as Angel Diaz, the results illustrated that even the most cautious mode of execution can sill turn out to be inhuman.  After using the lethal injection, doctors and other witnesses reported that there was a high probability that the victim was subjected to a lot of suffering during his death. Medics affirm that chemicals that were used did not go to the intended places.  Therefore, the fact that even such a procedure is in human does not require further emphasis.

            As highlighted in the introductory part, administering capital punishment has proved to be a complicated issue altogether. For instance, according to Times Editorial (2007), use of lethal injection requires a lot of procedures that are not only costly but may end up causing other problems. For instance, to have doctors administering lethal injection means that they have to go against their code of ethics.  Further studies illustrate that carrying out a lawful lethal injection that is lawful does not only require medical professionals, but also extra training as well as additional protocols of carrying out the same.  Therefore, even if the concerned department plans to make major improvement in carrying out capital punishment like providing further training and installing cameras in the execution room, it is explicit that the changes cannot result to a more humane execution.

 Capital punishment ensures that a person faces death penalty for the crime committed.   Apart from that, the penalty is supposed to deter others from committing the same crime. However, studies indicate that administering capital punishment does not reduce the number of murders committed (Times Editorial, 2007).  For that reason, although it is not easy to admit the truth, the effectiveness of the   penalty is still questionable. People still continue to commit capital crimes despite the penalty. Apart from being inhuman, it is clear that the punishment rarely achieves all its intended objectives.

A much as many may still argue in the favor of capital punishment, critical analysis on the issue reveals that it would be more beneficial to abandon the punishment.  The study has indicated that it is inhuman no matter how it is conducted since it exposes a person to much harm and suffering and it is also a complicated procedure due the requirements of the same.  Lastly, the study indicates; it does not plead to reduction in crime rate.  Therefore, all factors take into consideration, capital punishment ought to be abolished.

Introduction

The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) refers to a trade agreement signed between Canada, Mexico and the United States of America; leading to the creation of a trilateral trading block in North American region. The trade agreement came into existence on 1^st January 1994, replacing the then Canada- US Free Trade Agreement that was between the United States and Canada. The NAFTA is complemented by two other agreements; the North American Agreement on Environmental cooperation (NAAEC) and the North American Agreement on Labor Cooperation (NAALC).

Benefits of the inclusion of other nations in NAFTA

The extension to include other countries in the NAFTA agreement will be fruitful despite all the criticism and controversies. A free trade policy is a vital ingredient in promoting international trade at the global level (Love, 1999). This implies that adopting the free trade association is an opportunity not only to the United States but also other proposed countries in the NAFTA agreement to enhance their economy and foster diplomatic relations in the region. The inclusion of the free trade association will result in foreign investments and exchange of resources between the participating countries under the NAFTA agreement. Foreign investments and exchange of resources implies increased trade opportunities for the participating countries and enhance regional integration in terms of economy and foreign diplomatic relations among the involved countries (Weitraub, 1994).

Apart from the economic benefits associated with the free trade association, the adoption of the free trade association to include Central American countries and Columbia will facilitate the improvement of the American industries in terms of efficiency and competitiveness. Free trade means that access to the market is open to a wide variety of sellers and buyers, in order to match up the completive nature of the free market, American industries will have to ensure quality services and products; this in turn will help to improve the competitiveness of American industries which healthy for the economic growth of the US and facilitate in the improvement of peoples living standards (Weitraub, 1994).

The inclusion of other nations in the NAFTA agreement will promote the access of cheaper imports by the United States. The US is a consuming nation, implying that that it can not sustain itself without having access to imports. The inclusion of other nations means that the US will have access to wider market to outsource its consumables and other cheap imports which may in turn serve as raw materials for the United States of America. Free trade association means a wider market opportunity for the United States not only to import but also to export its produce to the participating countries. This would facilitate the expansion and competitiveness of the United States exports industry especially in terms of US farm exports (Love, 1999).

Conclusion

The inclusion of other nations in the NAFTA agreement will seem beneficial not only to the United States, but also the included participating countries. The key benefit directed towards the inclusion of other nations will be an economic boost to the participating countries. Apart from the economic boosts, free trade association will foster an increased regional economic integration resulting an almost complete trading block; this means there will be increased mutual diplomatic relations among the participating countries (Love, 1999). Therefore, other countries should be included in the NAFTA trade agreement.

The beginning of the 19^th century saw the onset of industrialization in America. This presented an opportunity for the development of mill towns and industrialized cities implying that there was an opportunity for the men and women to participate in paid labor offered by the factories. The beginning of women labor during the 1820’s marked a significant part in the history of the United States; because working and providing for the family was basically the responsibility of men during the times[1]. The women task was to look after the homes through domestic labor; they were subject to the authority of men. The women’s involvement in non-domestic labor marked an important aspect of the American Revolution. The women roles during 1820- 1830 in the United States underwent a great transformation from the domestic set up to the non domestic labor that first earned the women salaries and wages to make them economically independent. Contrary to the traditional American setting, the onset of the women labor in the 1820’s was major advancement in the women roles in the American Revolution. The women’s participation in non-domestic work presented a shift in the gender roles of the traditional America. It was during the 1820’s that saw a larger proportion of women getting involved in factory labor in the same capacity as their male counterparts[2].

The first working women

With the emergence of manufacturing industries, many young and single women from the rural America during the early 19^th century particularly from 1820-1830, left their families and went to work in the factories. Women’s participation in the non-domestic paid labor was primarily centered in the manufacturing factories such as cotton and pulp mills. The availability of cheap labor from the women during the beginning of industrialization in the United States facilitated the expansion of the manufacturing industries[3]. Majority of the young women in the US were ready and willing to work in the factories while the men preferred to work on the farms. These represented the first generation of working women in America who received income outside their homes from doing non domestic labor. The primary reason that led to these women working in the factories was that they were seeking economic independence despite the work being viewed as dominated by their male counterparts and being a risky affair.

Majority of the women factory workers of the 1820s were mainly involved in jobs such as paper processing, factory cleaning and packing services. Other areas that involved women participation included seasonal jobs on the factory farms and forest plantations that were owned by the pulp mills. By the end of the 1820s, the proportion of women in the factories labor force was almost 50 % with majority being employed in the pulp mills and cotton mills. Most of the women who were working in the mills were young in age; ranging from 18 to 20 years with most of them being unmarried. In 1826, 20 percent of the workforces in Jamansoski pulp mill were women. This indicated that women were preferred in provision of labor that did not require a lot of technical expertise such as in the machinery domain. Women were also employed on the office whereby worked as secretaries and office messengers[4].

Through women’s participation in paying labor, the gender roles of the women were shifted from the traditional way of life of a woman; getting married, looking after children and housekeeping to the working woman, who had the same financial ability and independence as the men. When the women returned to their homes during visitations, they were able to show the attestation to their earning power. This marked some form of independence among the women[5]. The shifting in the roles of the women presented an independence from the bondage of the societal norms that they were not supposed to earn money. The rural women probably had no deeper understanding and the significance of money and the contentment it would offer them. Their working at the factories resulted to savings and bank deposit accounts. The women who went to work at the mills were primarily after gaining financial independence. Initially before the establishment of the factories during the industrial era, majority of women depended on their husbands for financial support because it was not their role to earn money or participate in any activity that involved paying labor. Working in the factories meant that they were at least entitled to wages which would result to their economic independence; contrary to the traditional women who completely relied on their husbands and parents for financial support.

Women labor was preferred by the factory owners compared to men labor because it was readily available and cheap; because women were being paid a lesser amount compared to what their male counterparts in the same domain would be paid for[6]. As a result of this, there was exploitation of the women in the factories in terms of poor working conditions and small amount of wages which were as a low as $1. From the letters the women at Lowell wrote back home, one female worker named Mary Paul quotes she was being paid 1$ and eighty cents for a whole months work, with long working hours and poorly conditioned boarding houses.  Despite these hardships, the women viewed their participation in paid labor as liberating through the earning of their own money and living on their own. One of the benefits that accompanied most of the women who worked at the factories is that they gained freedom; this was ultimately the best of all reasons for working at the factories. This made the women pride themselves in the work and their nation which offered best motivation for the women working in the mills.

Physical appearance has great influences, especially to the career success on the managerial position. The influence in all cases happens to be either positive or negative. It is a fact that needs to be acknowledged even though it is considered to be politically extremely faulty for one to be considered or discarded just because of his physical appearance (Margulis, 2006: 39). This discussion illustrates the role played by physical appearance on career success in managerial positions. It also illustrates different approaches regarding physical appearance in relation to career success.

To start with, it is important to understand the meaning of various concepts in reverence to how they are used in this discussion. One of the concepts is physical appearance which is based on personal observation and how others react. More considerations are on the outward appearance: dressing, body height, body structure, facial impression, and skin color. Career success is a second concept which means the achievement of self- referent goals where in this case it means attaining a managerial position as one’s career. Managerial position concept as used in this essay means the ability of doing things precisely and right through use of organization resources towards achievement of its goals.

The concept of physical appearance is however too broad in that one can use various aspects to categorize it. Various aspects in this case means different characteristic which can be considered while grouping physical appearance in different parts. One of the categories is body appearance and the second one is the facial appearance. Changing ones physical appearance is impossible but one can try on various ways of improving the same. The body appearance can be subdivided on gender, the height, the body structure while facial appearance has to do with dressing, make ups, and skin color among others (Jackson, 1992: 14). Fashion models and basket ball players do not build any interest in this discussion. They are involved in technical positions where they are being managed by others to enhance their performances.

Career success in managerial position is the ability to keep continual managerial momentum. Attaining that position is not only enough in career success as one has to enhance a higher performance, keep on being ambitious for the production of best rewards which are the characteristics of managerial momentum. This means that the success is achieved when one manages to organize different resources to enhance performance. It also means that one has to put in more effort by using much of his time which might call for being at work in elongated hours than the normal working hours. One has therefore to maintain the high managerial integrity which involves honesty, high organization, and good communication skills. Success in managerial position can be measured in both the objectivity and subjectivity. This means that by the position held as a manager and the performance results of the person (Tang, 2000: 142)

The term influence implicates the power that is used or being directed to someone in that it affects some ones way of life or doing of things. This power can either positively affect someone by increasing the chances of acquiring something while in this case refers to the power influence in attaining managerial position as a career success. The power can also induce negative effects where one’s chances of attaining managerial position as a career success are reduced. Out of just physical appearance for example, a tall men who always dress smartly in an organization, might be promoted into managerial positions with the belief that he will also organize things smartly just as his physical outlook. His performance however may have nothing to do with the physical outlook while at the same time he might perform well in that position. Many women have however failed to attain success in their career where they fail to attain managerial position with the bias attitude where many believe that only men who can perform such tasks.

 

Darfur war which began in the year 2003 takes place in Sudan at the Darfur region. The conflict involves two groups namely Sudan Movement Liberation Army as well as the Justice and Equality Movement against the government of Sudan which is accused of oppression and genocide committed against the black Africans in order to favor Arabs. It is a serious conflict because the government supposedly supports one group the militia, by providing it with weapons and finances (Milani). As any other war, the consequences are grave ranging from death of human beings either from being killed or succumbing to other effects of war which include starvation and disease. There are many causes of the war which have been cited like the conflict between Muslims and Christians, establishment of an illegal economy and distribution of weapons, to name just a few.  Scarcity of water resource is a major and the root cause of the conflict although it has received very little attention.  In that case, this essay argues for the idea that water is the cause of war in Darfur.

            Without negating the fact that there are many causes that have led to the conflict in Sudan, critical analysis of background issues reveals that water is the root cause. The country of Sudan is composed of two groups of people.  One group is comprises mixed farmers who grow crops and keep animals and therefore depends on water resources for survival. The other group is the nomadic population which keeps on moving from one place to another in search of water for their animals. Since the country suffers greatly from the prolonged effects of draught, nomadic pastoralists mainly depend on wells and that is why they keep on migrating from one place to another. Therefore, since it is clear that Sudan has been affected by draught and the effects of draught, two groups of population usually conflict while competing for the scarce water    resource.          

            Concluding that water is not the main cause of war is an understatement focusing on the fact that various studies which have been conducted reveal it to be so.  For instance, in a report which the former president of South Africa was the chairman, the main causes of conflict in Darfur were identified as land, decay of the environment, lack of law and order and also influence of conflicts from the neighboring countries like Chad.  In addition, inflow of weapons was also included in the report as a causative factor. Most importantly, the report emphasized on the fact that movement of people from one region to another was the chief cause of the conflict. The report illustrated that people from the areas affected by the draught condition move towards the south while farmers keep on cultivating more land and therefore depleting the grazing lands. According to (Muhammad), Dr. El-Baz who is the director for Remote Sensing at Boston University had the same views that water is the root cause of the problem.

             Even though there are other causes of the conflict in Darfur, water is the main cause directly and indirectly.  It is clear that the economy of Darfur is largely agrarian based on agriculture and pastoralist activities. Consequently, it has been seriously affected by the recurring draught conditions since 1980s which led to desertification of most parts of the region (Milani).   Therefore, since by all means people must survive, they conflict over the limited resources of not only water, but also land and food leads to the conflict. 

              War in Darfur is a serious problem not only locally but also internationally. Most important, although various agencies have been committed to looking for solutions to the problem by looking at the main causes, some factors which are very important have not been recognized. Therefore, water falls under this category of causes that have not been identified and focused on. Nonetheless, without further emphasis, critical analysis of the issue reveals that water is an important cause of Darfur war. 

 

Social development is basically the growth which occurs when there is transformation in the shared social compositions thus improving the capability to perform individual’s or society’s objectives. There are therefore the personal skills which contribute to the enhancement of constructive social development in children and adolescents where some of them include: ability to communicate well, the act of being confidence and showing the act of cooperation with others. When one is in a position to communicate well, the other children will be able to get his or her intended meaning while at the same time being in a position to avoid hurting others through use of inappropriate words thus promoting social development. The confidence nature in children and adolescents  helps one to appreciate first who he is thus being in a position to express oneself in a social set up while at the same time it helps one to accomplish individual’s responsibilities. Ability to cooperate with others enhances social development because through it one is in a position to work well together with others especially in areas where group work is needed.

Children’s family plays a very significant role in promoting constructive social development which is developed at home hence being reciprocated in school. When the family members appreciate one another despite someone’s disabilities the confidence in children is built. Just by the act of appreciation one feels loved in the family which is third requirement in Maslow hierarchy (Sapru, 2006). In this good communication is also enhanced such that one learns how to address others who are different from him where he does not hurt them while communicating. Appreciation in the family is very significant such that when parents use of good communication while addressing their children, these children use the same language while addressing others. This is well evidenced in Maurice Elias theory as one of the ways to promote social development  (Zins, 2004).

The aspect of a family working together on the family responsibilities promotes cooperation. By this family should also encourage sharing of responsibilities for instance when some members are involved in cooking, the others could be washing utensils, cleaning the house, feeding cattle so that at the end of the day the out of the individual’s cooperation then all the cores will have been accomplished. On the other hard family qualities can sometime inhibit the above skills for instance in the unstable family full of conflicts. Violence at home can promote tension to the family members more so to children and adolescents hence they may not cooperate, they may also lose confidence in themselves thus failing to appreciate themselves, and in such family environment, there is always development of poor communication. When there is violence in the family, the members feel insecure such that the full safety requirements are not achieved which is a second necessity on Maslow theory thus promoting poor social development  (Sapru, 2006).

Classroom environment also contribute much to the enhancement of social development. According to Maurice Elias a learning environment where self control is promoted leads to social development. This promotes respect toward each other at the same time doing only what is expected. Discussion sessions in classrooms where all are expected to participate helps in building ones confidence. Learners are also in a position to attain good communication in their interactions while at the same time showing cooperation during the discussion period. There is however some qualities which hinder the social development in classroom for instance, in situations where the teacher teaches without giving the learners chances to contribute on their views. This kind of learning environment is referred as a single lined learning thus it is hard for students to build their confidence, learn how to communicate well with others and also cooperation in children and adolescents at school is not well developed. In this teachers argue that there is limited time due to the overloading capacity of the learning curriculum which is well depicted in the Maurice Elias theory on social development (Zins, 2004).

 

Human development is inclusive of cognitive development which its basic premises involves the thoughts construction process. This occurs through the ability to remember, being in a position to solve different problems and the capability of making individual’s decisions from infancy, in the course of adolescence to adulthood. Teachers therefore have the responsibility of understanding how the children and the adolescents mentally develop which is considered as a gigantic component of the learning development. This therefore enables the teacher to accommodate all different students with different levels of understandings in classroom. There are many theories which discuss the cognitive development in children and adolescence thus this discussion is inclusive on some of these theories.

To begin with, different theorists have discussed on the cognitive development while differing in some aspects but in one way or another they have some commonalities. In comparison of Piaget and Vygotsky approach on intelligence development, they both acknowledge intellectual development to take place when the acquirement of sign coordination occurs. They both believe that the invariant progression of steps for children and adolescence are the same and also they both feel that the cognitive conflict initiate the development. On contrast Piaget believes that for any learning to occur, there must first be the occurrence of specific development. Vygotsky approach on this is the opposite in that learning must take place before the occurrence of any specific development (Keenan, 2002).

On developmental stages, the two theorists have some similarities all through from the time of birth to the adolescence. They both advocate on the social factors having significant position on developmental stages. They both acknowledge on the importance of children and adolescent learning culture symbol coordination. They both agree that some tasks are beyond understanding capacity range of adolescents and children where Vygotsky views that they can however get assistance from capable people. On contrast in developmental stages, Piaget takes cognitive development as a process that contains four stages. The sensory motor is his first stage which is from the time of birth to two years followed by preoperational stage which occurs at the age of two to seven years, then concrete operation that takes place in seven to eleven years and the last stage as formal operational which starts at eleven years all through to adulthood (Oakley, 2004). On the other hand Vygotsky considers two elements instead of stages. The two elements include: private speech and proximal development zone.

In classroom applications of the two theorists, they too have some similarities and differences. On Piaget’s theory classroom application in a kindergarten classroom where children are on preoperational stage, there is the act of sharing then doing some acting what will be done afterwards. Some may be for the idea of making snowmen while others snow angles where they all have correct responses. Vygotsky’s theory application, there can be a consideration of a third grade experience of a classroom where there is classification of different rocks in reverence to their diverse characteristics. Formation of groups would allow the other students to speak out in their classification of rocks. This loud thinking gives an opportunity to the fellow peers to listen to their thinking process while being in a position appreciates other views on rocks thus promoting learning in different groups. There are similarities in the above different learning applications where in both case there is the act of listening to the loud thinking and also in both there is interaction with the environment even though using different theory applications  (Keenan, 2002).

Development-induced Displacement

People are often forced to move from their home by the state for the purpose of economic developments intended to take place at their owned land. This kind of displacement is referred to as development-induced displacement. These developments are always meant to benefit the entire community at large where some of them include: construction of dams, mining activities, and development of ports among others. This kind of displacement impact people in different ways; where Kenyan women have been reported to suffer more than men. There are other types of displacements such as those caused by ways or earthquakes. These other types of displacements receive favors for instance through international aids. The victims suffering from the development-induced relocations are in most cases left without sympathy. The reason behind the benefits of the entire community has been considered over the few victims where women suffer most thus the government justifies itself basing on the benefits attained (Wet 105). The following discussion is a reflective on the impacts experienced by Kenyan women as a result of development-induced dislocation.

To start with, women fall under the class of the most considered as vulnerable groups. In Kenyan policies which guides the compensation processes, women are barred from these policies thus women who are the heads of households always have difficulties in accessing compensation. In man headed families the compensation is received by men, which in many cases counts up to cash value of the entire family resources thus women are left at a higher deprivation risk. When this happen,  men sometimes disappear or misuse the compensation payment leaving women with children in demanding situations. Most women in Kenyan community are involved in barter economy so as to provide the basic needs to their families, when displaced from the area of their markets they therefore compete when buying food in the market with the salaried divisions. Most women become landless leading to joblessness thus having difficulties when accessing food. Even though women lack the full rights on land control and forest, induced displacement denies those chances to access their community resources inclusive of communal land. Denied access and control further results into malnutrition in women because in Kenyan customs, males are supposed to be fed first thus when there is food shortage resulting from displacement, women are left to feed on the gruel while the available food is given to men.

Some of the developments are known to create jobs to the societies. Most of these jobs are given to men especially them that require much physical strength. A good example to this is the current ongoing expansion of roads where men have been in position to secure job positions (Mehta 37). Women are reduced in taking only the position of housewives thus depending on their husbands’ single salary. Most men on the other hand squander some portions of their salaries on alcohol. Family violence is increased especially against women as most men end up into drunkenness as a means of coping with the trauma. Domestic violence might have been there before displacement, but it increases with the increase of alcoholism after displacement which not only affects men but also women when left with no work.

A higher percentage of young women are always forced to leave school to help the families to work so as to increase family income. Women health is considerably poor even under the usual environmental conditions whereas upon displacement the overall status of their health worsens than that of men. There has been increased HIV transmission in women as they turn to increased sexual activities to cope with economic crises as a result of displacement (John and Susan118). Women are known to suffer more on social stress which is accompanied by the displacement-induced where psychosomatic trauma hit women who are said to be more emotional. Even though there are many negative impacts that relate to development-induced relocations, women have acquired some positive impacts on the same out of their lives transformations. Substantial number of women often becomes breadwinners when their husbands run away out of displacements frustrations. This status restructures the society cultural opinions which figure their way of lives. Patriarchal structures are challenged leading to the more acceptances to the woman headed families which for a long time are referred as unaccepted in the Kenyan society (Wet 119).

Finally, development-induced relocations have resulted into more negative impacts to women as compared to that of men. Women in Kenyan society have formed movements against relocations such that for any relocation to take place then their rights have also to be considered. They all have one aim in these movements- the lawful mandating of development-induced relocations- thus a well informed consent which is accessible by both women and men such that they all benefit from the compensation payments. These kinds of displacements should not at any instance threaten lives where there should be considerations when displacing people who have special attachments on their owned land resources as the source of their income. Developments for whichever reasons cannot be bona fide without remediation of the impacts faced by women upon displacements and the whole society at large. The displaced pay the highest price of these developments resulting into relocations, thus there should be reciprocation of the benefits which they should attain.

Introduction

Crime dropped significantly in the United States during 1990s; for all the categories of crime in almost all parts of America. The Federal Bureau of Investigation reports that homicide rates declined from 35% to reach the lowest levels during the ten year period from 1991 to 2001. The violent and property crime rates fell from 34% to 29% during the same decade. Initially, before the 1990, the United States experienced a series of rampant criminal activities which was accompanied by a decrease during the 1990s. However, the following decade saw the onset of increasing crime again. This crime rates decline occurred without a prior warning therefore raising concerns about a future explosion of crime rates again (Hancock & Sharp, 2000). The reduction of crime rates during the 1990s can be attributed to a number of measures and policies which were effectively put in place during this ten year period.

1.

One of the factors that can explain the crime rates decline during this decade was the strong economy that was experienced during the 1990s. During this period, there was sustainable economic growth in the United States; which saw the annual unemployment rate reduce from 6.8 % to 4.8 % in 2001. Macroeconomic performance is a key factor in influencing crime rates and this economic growth could possibly explain the why crime reduced during this ten year period. This economic improvement explains decline in crimes that are financially motivated such as robbery and burglary. Although it had less significant effect on the homicide, rape and assaults (Hancock & Sharp, 2000).  This depicts that any future changes in economic factors could possibly trigger the onset of crime again; and with the onset of global depression and recession, crime is on the rise again.

Another reason for crime reduction is better policing strategies. The crime control approach deployed increased law enforcement on criminal activities and identification of crime hot spots rather responding to emergency calls. Other approaches included community policing. These policing strategies saw a decline in crime rates. Any compromise on these policing strategies could lead to an explosion of crime again. The incline in crime during the present times has been sparked by the attitudes the masses have towards the police in general especially the African Americans.

Another factor that possibly led to crime decline is the crime control laws. Reports indicated that almost 60 % of homicide crimes that occurred before the 1990s had the use of a fire arm. The implementation of gun control laws reduced the levels of homicide crime in the United States during this period. The deployment stringent policies in gun control laws ensured that there was reduced illegal gun ownership and acquisition. Crime reduction to some extent can be credited to increased capital punishment that was evident during the 1990s, the demographic transformations that occurred during this period and the implementation of laws that allowed the ownership and acquisition of concealed weapons. Changes in the above factors are responsible for the present increase in crime levels in the United States.

2.

According to Herbart Packer, the Crime Control Model that is presently being used resembles an assembly line.  The determination of guilt by an offender is primarily based on two ideologies; factual guilt, where an offender’s guilt is determined by the views of the people and legal guilt whereby an offender’s guiltiness is bound under the lawful authority that defines what is bad or good to termed as a violation of state laws. The Current crime control model uses authoritative power and is subject to abuse of the abuse of the governmental power which could lead to the innocent be imprisoned and the society’s freedom to be compromised. From my opinion, I agree with Herbert Packer that the crime control model resembles an assembly line (Hancock & Sharp, 2000).

Most ideologies used towards crime control are based on false postulations concerning the functions of the criminal justice system. The current criminal justice system is not centered on seeking the truth and this explains the reasons why many criminals are let off the hook despite their actual involvement in the crime; elements of racial discrimination are evident in the criminal justice system. This can be explained by the lack of consistent and predictable judicial processes that are supposed to charge the factual offenders.

In the crime model, suppression of criminal behavior is the most significant purpose of the criminal process, it aims ensuring that crime is controlled rather than delivering justice. It aims at maximizing on effective crime control through increasing the number of criminals that are brought to justice.  The control model therefore resembles an assembly line, with its key goal being centered on quantity rather that quality; analogy to ensuring crime is stopped rather than fostering justice.