Author: chris

Breast Cancer

Breast cancer is a metastatic breast tissue comprising two different categories of breast cancer i.e. Ductal carcinoma which initiates in the ducts, meant to transfer milk to the nipple and Lobular carcinoma, which initiates in lobules involved in milk production. These are the major tissue that breast cancer can establish although in some cases, it has been noted to start in other breast tissues. Invasive breast cancer spreads from lobule or ducts to the rest of breast tissue while noninvasive breast cancer is restricted to the tissue it initiated also referred to as in situ marked as ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) and lobular carcinoma in situ (LCIS) (Hunt et al 9 & 10). Breast cancer is responsive to estrogen which facilitates its growth since the tumor contains estrogen receptors on the surface hence called ER-positive cancer.  In other cases, women have HER2 which is a gene that facilitate the growth, division and repair of cells. Therefore cancer cells with various copies of HER2 have a drastic growth causing a more forceful and recurrent disease (Pub Med pr. 1 & 5). Breast cancer was discovered by ancient Egyptians where Edwin Smith recorded details of its management procedure and prevalence of the disease in Egypt on papyrus (Winchester 1).

Risk Factors

One in every eight women shall have a breast cancer diagnosis in life due to various risk factors. Age and gender; the risk factors of acquiring a breast cancer rises with age where women in their fixities have been noted to have a highly advanced breast cancer. Additionally, women are a hundred times more probable to acquire breast cancer as compared to men. Family history is another risk factor associated with breast cancer adding up to 20-30% of women with breast cancer. Genetic composition as a risk factor predisposes some individuals as compared to others. For instance, BRCA1 & BRCA2 are genes whose role is to produce protein, which shield one from cancerous cells. When these genes become defective, which might be inherited from parents, an individual is more prone to cancer. Women who contain one of the defective genes are 80% probable to acquire breast cancer. Women whose menstrual cycle began at an early age of below twelve years or whose menopause came after 55 years have a higher risk of attaining breast cancer (Pub Med pr. 6).

Other minor risk factors include alcoholism where taking over two glasses daily elevate the probability of having breast cancer. Besides, women with no children or whose childbirth happened at the age of thirty or more years have a higher risk while multiple pregnancies especially when young reduce the risks. Moreover, women who ever took the drug diethylstilbestrol to manage miscarriage have higher risk of having breast cancer when they have reached forty years. Finally, radiation exposure or radiotherapy at an early age aimed around the chest predisposes one to breast cancer. If the doses are high and done at an early age i.e. at some stage in breast development, this increases the chances of having breast cancer (Pub Med pr. 7).

Symptoms

During early stages, there are no notable symptoms which emphasize the need to have breast exams regularly. However, when the breast cancer continues to develop, symptoms may involve the following. Hard and painless breast or armpit lump with uneven edges. Modification in texture, shape and size of the nipple or the whole breast e.g. redness dimpling. In other cases, the nipple may produce a fluid which is colored and pus like. Men with breast cancer experience lump, pain and breast tenderness. During advanced stages of breast cancer, the patient may experience bone pain, weight loss, skin ulcers, breast pains, and arm swelling adjacent to the cancerous breast (Pub Med pr. 10 & 11).

Test

The physician evaluates the symptoms in relation to the risk factors. This is followed by a physical exam which involves the breasts, chest cavity, armpits as well as the neck. The tests that are incorporated in diagnosing breast cancer involves first, breast MRI, which aids in identifying the lumps or assess unusual mammogram change. Second, breast ultrasound is done to detect if the lump is filled with fluid or if it is just solid. Third, breast biopsy involves procedures like needle aspiration, stereotactic and ultrasound guided analysis. Forth, a CT scan detects if the cancerous cells have invaded other tissues. Fifth, a mammography aids in screening for cancerous cells or in detecting breast lumps. Finally, other tests involve PET scan and sentinel lymph node biopsy for assessing the spread of the cancer. These procedures that detect spread of cancer cells are referred to as staging which is essential in administering treatment and the future expectations. The stages that breast cancer falls under vary from 0 to IV where the greater the staging the advanced the breast cancer (Pub Med Pr. 15).

Prevention

Tamoxifen is recommended for prevention of breast cancer for women over the age of 35(Pub Med Pr. 16). Additionally, prophylactic mastectomy through surgical removal of both breasts can be undertaken before the cancer is diagnosed especially those with family history and defective genes. It is necessary to have total mastectomy to eliminate the chances of acquiring the cancer (Kasper & Ferguson 39). Moreover, healthy eating habits e.g. moderate calories, whole grain, fruits and vegetables, avoiding red meat and lifestyle changes e.g. controlled alcohol consumption go a long way in preventing breast cancer (Donegan & Spratt 199).

Treatment

Treatment could be local, which target the disease area with radiation or surgical procedures or systemic which affect the whole body such as chemotherapy (Hunt et al 11 & 12).  It varies with stage, hormonal sensitivity and expression of HER2/neu gene of the breast cancer (Pub Med pr. 20). The treatment involves chemotherapy, radiotherapy and surgery. Chemotherapy aims at killing the cancerous cells, radio therapy at destroying the cancerous tissue while surgery aims at removing the cancerous tissue through a surgical procedure which may involve lumpectomy to remove the lump or mastectomy to remove entire breast and nearby tissues (Donegan & Spratt 31). Women who are ER-positive are recommended for hormonal therapy to manage the hormones facilitating the cancer. For instance tamoxifen drug curbs estrogen effects while aromatase inhibitors like exemestane drugs are recommended for postmenopausal women and work by blocking production of estrogen. Other treatment procedures include biologic therapy, which utilize anticancer drugs like trastuzumab and manages cell changes (Pub Med pr. 22). Treatment for stage I, II & III is meant to cure while stage IV is managed through combined treatment to prolong life and not to cure. Follow-up tests are necessary after and in the course of treatment to evaluate the response of the cancerous cells (Hunt et al 14)

 

The Vietnam War was one of the few wars that faced critics in America. The president had numerous motives while engaging into this war. President Lyndon Johnson had expected that China and Russia might intervene in the war after some time, which did not happen. President Johnson also had an ambitious motive of the congress passing a legistration that would see the increase of the defense budget without increasing the taxes. The decision made by president Johnson led to political, social, and military issues coming up. Socially the biggest anti-war movement rose up that opposed most of his polices as well as presence of mass protest. Politically, his political carrier was extinguished due to the communist campaigns and many Americans felt he had misled the government. He could not be able to stand for re-election because he had become unpopular as well as his party. The later years saw the congress passing resolution that cut down the budget of the military and the president’s proposal of extending aid to Vietnam being turned down. The Vietnam War also had the biggest number of draftees which comprise about half of them.

Much can be learnt from these incidents. For one, there is need for the president to sell his policies to the people and the congress before they are implemented. Failure to do so may warrant for rebellion by the public and loss of popularity among the people. The fact that the passing of the policy by the congress without increasing taxes led to the country being affected economically is an important lesson to the government.  There is need to ensure that policies that are passed have some financial support or the government has a plan on how to get the funds.  Due to this incident, the country has tried to ensure that the policies made have support of money to avoid any incidents of economic constrains. On the other hand, the involvement in war has only come up if there is need to involve in war. For example, in the wars both Iraq and Afghanistan, the government has been involved in after it has been triggered to get involved in them. The article by Robert Scheer on the anniversary of Vietnam War should be a guide to the government to avoid activities that might lead to unnecessary war as well as ensure the war in both Iraq and Afghanistan does not turn out to become similar to Vietnam War.

There is a no likelihood that the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan may translate to the war in Vietnam. The fact that the involvement of the government came about due to incidences like the September 11 attacks, people understand that there is a treat out there that need to be handled. The efforts by the government to withdraw the number of American soldiers is an indication that the government is committed in ensuring that it does not get involved in unnecessary  war. The article by James Carafanon says it all about the two different wars. The motive of involvement in the wars is different as the author describes the fighting in Iraq is about helping the people to establish a democratic government and prevent oppressive ruling.

Staying in war or withdrawing in war is dependant on the risk our country is facing as well as the fighting nation is facing. If there are attacks in Iraq or Afghanistan, there is need to access whether the attacks are against the presence of American soldiers or they are terrorist attacks. If they are terrorist attacks, there is need to stay and try to stop them, if it is against our soldiers being present, withdrawing them is the best option. However, there is need to withdraw soldiers if the two nation stabilize and there are stable government running them.

 

This topic tells us the different evolution of human features over the past 7-6 million years and the gradual emergence of these human traits. The initial humans did not walk upright but on the ground and also climbed trees. The first early human said to represent a common ancestry to both humans and chimpanzee’s is known as the sahelanthropus, and is believed to have been bipedal and its upright posture assisted this species stay alive in diverse habitats, which included grasslands and forests. Due to the adaptation to such habitats, their bodies evolved in ways, which enabled them to largely walk upright and still climb trees. This species had its upper thighbone part similar to that of large apes. Compared to a chimpanzee, the spine of early humans connected with the skull underneath, stabilizing the head when walking upright as opposed to that of a chimpanzee, which connected with the skull at the back, holding the head at an angle. The hip muscles enabled the early human walk, due to the connection between the upper thigh and hip bones was longer than in chimpanzees. The early human could regularly support its weight on one leg at a time when walking due to its strong knee joint, which is lightly built. This upright walking helped the early man in picking fruits and other food from low lying branches, helped them to cover wide landscapes quickly and efficiently and also enabled them to appear large and intimidating. However, this upright posture has led to back pain and other skeletal problems commonly known to the modern humans, therefore making this an abject side effect of walking upright.

By 6 million years ago, the early human species known as the Australopithecus afarensis, were small in size and with unusual long arms and short legs, and also had a large digestive tract for their plant based diet. This also characterized their broad rib cage, which made room for the intestines, stomach and other organs that broke down food. Around 1.9 million years ago, some of the early humans could now adapt to the hot climates, due to their narrow bodies that helped them remain cool, while their long legs enabled them to travel longer distances,this has commonly being associated with Homo erectus. From 6-2 million years ago, the early humans evolved bigger and complex brains as they continued to evolve bigger bodies and this helped them tackle encounters in strange environments as they spread around the globe. These environmental unpredictability led to this massive brain growth that helped our ancestors survive.

Another human characteristic is illustrated around 2.6 million years ago as there came the dawn of new technology in the lives of the early humans. By this time they used hammer stones to shape stone cores so as to form sharp flakes, which were used to cut, crush, pound and access new foods that included meat from large animals. Also around 1.7 million years ago, the early man shaped large flakes off stone cores into hand axes, which served as a multipurpose tool for more than a million years, and these ancient axes have been found in various parts of Asia, Europe and Africa. Later on around 790000 years ago, the early man could now control fire and used it as a tool for cooking; this led to great change in the diet of the early human. The cooking of food made their food easier to digest because cooking released nutrients in foods, although some researchers think that cooking may date back to 1.5 million years ago. This dawn of new technology enabled the early human hunt and kill large animals by making wooden spears. This reduced the risk that they earlier experienced from these wild animals. This period of time also saw the invention of awls and perforators in Africa, which were later carried on to cooler climates.

As time went on, another human characteristic that came out is the ability of the early humans socializing for group survival tactics. The sharing of different resources helped them meet the daily environmental challenges, and they also congregated together so as to rear families. So around 350000 years ago, our ancestors adopted new ways of communication through color, language, paintings, figurines and writing, this helped them interact and express themselves in an unpredictable world. By using ocher and manganese, the early humans marked objects and their own skin so as to identify themselves and group. Also by this time, they were creating artifacts that represented the world around them and this was done through drawing, engraving and stenciling. Through words and symbols, language and its richness was ultimately born to the modern human life.

Through the past 12,000 years, our species the Homo sapiens made a transitional change by producing food and changing our surroundings, this has led to a significant change in the history of mankind. The Homo erectus became extinct and this saw the evolution of Homo sapiens, the modern man, who could now record information on objects, travel even wider distances, make special tools for fishing, collect and cook shellfish and so on.

My ”Aha!” moment came with the introduction of the Australopithecus afarensis species into the picture. I find its body structure of long arms and short legs very amusing together with its internal structure. The reason for choosing this topic is that, the human characteristic was not born with us since the beginning of time, but it took us time to come and adapt these characteristics. Therefore, the modern human characteristics is not as a result of invention, but a transitional evolution from our ancestors and these same characteristics, we do relate to and apply them in our daily lives irrespective of category. These human characteristics have helped in changing the world and are the reason as to why we are human.