Death penalty

Introduction

Capital punishment refers to a legitimate process in which an individual is sentenced to death by the justice system as a remedy for the crime committed (Arthur & Paula, 2002).  The real procedure of terminating the person who is guilty of murder is execution.   Crimes which lead to execution are often referred to as capital offenses.  It is important to note that capital punishment has been practiced in society for a very long time but its practice has of late come into criticism so some countries have abolished or limited its practice.  This is because it has become an act of controversy as political ideologies in these different countries change.   Another factor contributing to the diminishing application of the death penalty is the rising concern from civil rights activist who argue against the punishment saying that it goes against morality in society.  The use of capital punishment should be abolished because it goes against the theory of deterrence,  moral values, it is expensive, emotional cost involved and it goes against public opinion.

Theory of deterrence

The theory of deterrence is that the offender should act as an example to the general public and deter them from committing such act.  Studies have shown that capital punishment does not deter potential  offenders from committing crimes (Arthur & Paula, 2002)..  This is due to the fact that a general consensus does not exist as to whether execution is the ultimate deterrent to committing murder.  Furthermore, capital punishment has been applied sparingly in all nations in the world.  Those who use it still to record a smaller percentage of execution compared to the people who are sentenced to death by the courts.  It is clear that apart from  a death sentence,  there are other factors that contribute to people committing crime.  In some countries potential offenders are driven by the poor economic situations and neediest gain of status in life,  in several cities all over the world, gang members commit crimes for recognition and mission accomplishments.  This shows how varied the factor leading to the commission of crime, more specifically capital crimes.  Another argument that is against capital punishment is the increase in the number of crimes and homicides incidences across city streets (WMA News, 2010).  This shows that the existing evidence to support the execution of capital crime offenders is not only fragile but lacks substance.

On the other hand deterrent effect is significant in cases that execution of those sentenced occurred.  There is a significant relationship between the execution rate and the rate of crime reduction.  Those who are in favor of the punishment have come up with new methodologies that give evidence of deterrence effect.  This is done through analysis of the existing cases of capital crime execution against reports of new crimes being committed.  The results though disputed show some proved deterrence (Phillips, 2009).  Complicated study methods by scholars give evidence of correlation effect  between murder cases and capital punishment.  But the opponents of the issue argue in different tones.  They believe that the new methods of econometric analysis are too complicated to give substantial results so there are many flaws.   This implies that the flawed results hold no sound basis upon which conclusions can be drawn.   The law enforcement officers are against the act of capital punishment.  They reason that the execution can be a motivation factor for those who would want to terminate their lives through the commission of murder.

The police rank execution last in their list of factors that deter potential offenders from committing certain crimes (Terrence & George, 2012).  To the police, drug abuse features prominently as a factor that ;leads to individuals committing murder and other violent crimes.  It is logic that the reduction of drug abuse will deter offenders from committing these crimes and not capital punishment.  The police concurs ,with the opponents of death penalty.  They believe that given good economic conditions that offer job opportunities to the people, crime rates could be reduced considerably rather than use of the death sentence.  Putting all arguments in mind it is apparent that the use of the death penalty does not affect the causal effects of committing murder so its use should be abolished.

Moral values and retribution

The use of the death penalty has not been effective in some cases in many countries.  It still carries with it controversy.  This is because of the intend with which the penalty is to apply.  The justice system is supposed to give justice to the victims but at the same time ensure that there is morality in its ruling.  But the application of death penalty beats ,the moral values so its use is ineffective.  The proponents of capital punishment argue that capital punishment  morally justifies the end result, especially in murder cases.  Their reasoning is that when the use is applied in bigger murder crimes such as terrorism, multiple homicides and child murder, the death penalty serves moral duty (William, 2010).

Punishment, they believe  should be painful enough to be equal to the crime committed.  In the same manner, it will be unfair and unjust not to apply the death penalty in such situations since it will be a continuous painful reminder to the family members of the victims.  Use of execution is effective in putting a closure to the family and friends of the murdered person. Putting the person in the prisons will only aggravate the pain in the family of the victims.  The painful memories will be a thing of the past and healing sets in.  Payback is always the justification of this view.  The law of the jungle states that we reward those who are grateful to society and condemn those who are cruel and sadistic in society.  The act of committing murder, the proponents of retribution, believe is a cruel act against society and the remedy is to face death penalty.  The law should then punish and society should resent them.  In the view of retribution the society inflicts equal pain to the criminals as they deserve it.  The view is that the death penalty punishes while at the same time limiting the punishment.  The justification is that the capital punishment acts to inflict equal measure of pain to the criminal perpetrators. Retribution believe in eye for an eye and no more than that.

Those against this say that retribution serves the same way revenge is and the moral value of the penalty is foregone.  But the difference of retribution and revenge is that the former limits the pain whereas the latter does not limit punishment.  This means ,that revenge, unlike retribution is unjust in its application.  The fact that retribution in its application supports the courts in ruling not to give death penalty to mentally retarded, juvenile and rapists.    The biblical teachings especially in the old testament applied the rule of death penalty.   The proponents believed that the effective use of death penalty resulted in justice being delivered in society and acted as a measure to curb immoral behavior.  Moral values condone crimes and thus to prevent it the use of capital  punishment was applied.  Capital punishment brings obedience and order in society.  If a man leads to disintegration of humanity, he ceases to be protected by the same moral values but face its wrath.  This is done by the justice system and not the victims’ relatives.

On the other hand morals state that people need to uphold moral values.  Morally, there is no eye for an eye.  Moral values celebrate and regard humanity with uttermost respect.  This implies that if the death penalty is applied it goes against morality.  The death penalty has been applied  with a bias to favor the rich while oppressing the poor in society. There is no point in lamenting the act of murder yet in your punishment execution takes place.  Whatever the case death penalty needs to be abolished and instead other measures applied to reduce these crimes.  The intend of morality is to  correct and rehabilitate offenders and not punishing them through execution.  There is no pleasure in taking a person’s life however justified it may be-what will be the teaching then?  The constitution gives the right to life as the most fundamental right, so death penalty goes against the constitution when used.  The act inflicts  and violates the human rights and should be shunned.

Opponents of death penalty reflect on it as a questionable social and biblical behavior.  The mercy of God and societal morals rebuke the use of capital punishment this is because the family of the criminal would undergo torture the same way the victims. An avoidance will ensure that peace prevail.  Nevertheless death penalty is incompatible with the moral obligation so its use should be abolished and alternative punishments to be applied.

Expenses

Capital punishment is costly when applied.  The criminal offenders make several appeals to the court system to prove their innocence even when they are guilty.  They often do this to drag the process so that they live longer.  The appeal process would require a trial.  In the trial, judges are required, clerks of the courts , the jury need to be present.  The human resource in the delivery of the rulings requires to be paid.  The government need to appoint the prosecutor and he too needs allowances,  this means that the use of  the death penalty would require more taxes on the citizens.  The family of the victim has to be present during all the proceedings making it more expensive as they have to pay the lawyer.  The system works in a way that all legal proceedings have to be finished before the person is executed so more cost.  The proponents of the penalty argue that it is illogical for capital punishment to be more costly than a life sentence.

The imprisonment infarct is the most expensive since the state has to give constitutional rights to the individual which will be expenses for his lifetime.  This would have been avoided through the use of capital punishment.  Life sentences require that the offenders be put under tight security and more attention in terms of personnel be given to them.  This amounts to misuse of resources.  It is against the spirit of the constitution to think of justice in monetary value,  justice is supposed to be fair and the reference to money brings unfairness.  It is evident that death penalty the resources put in life imprisonment are meant to protect life and rehabilitate the offender , but in the application of capital punishment, money is wasted in trying to execute  a person which is cruel so the use of the death penalty should be abolished.

Effectiveness

Those opposed to death penalty argue that inflicting death is not a reason enough to control crime.  This is because criminal offenders are judged so that crime rates can be reduced.  The punishment given to wrong doers is meant to act as a lesson for those intending to involve themselves in crime.  In lieu of the argument they suggest that alternative penalties should be imposed to correct the crime rates all over the country.

Imprisonment for life can be an effective correction to the criminals.  It will keep them away from normal life and that is daunting enough to ,make them change their behavior.  This can be the best way of expressing community’s condemnation of the crime and disregard for law.  According to Beccaria the certainty of a penalty rather than severity, is the effective method of crime prevention. However. The proponents of the death penalty countered this argument by claiming that it served its purpose for the criminal offenders .  This is because it gave a complete condemnation of the act.  Furthermore they believed that the killing of the offender was a special way of crime prevention.  They were convinced that death sentence was the most effective deterrent as people fear death and the other alternatives are mere restrictions.

The effectiveness of death penalty still rages on.  The proponents and opponents engage in bitter arguments on which ways are the best.  Scholars in different fields especially the social sciences did intensive research on the effectiveness by comparing the crime rates before and after  death penalty became obsolete.  What is alarming is that the statistics collected show minimal or no relation to these two variables.  Crime rates thus are influenced by other factors within and outside our grasp.  Those opposed to the penalty point out that the same studies refute the existence of deterrent in cases applied.  The deterrent view of the proponents is seen as a negative outcome and hold no waters.  On the defensive side, proponents maintain that since the capital punishment is imposed on the worst criminals, data of their effect might not be made public.  This might be the reason for studies not yielding any conclusive results.  The effectiveness of the death penalty cannot be proven or refuted, but what is certain that the efficiency of capital punishment is questionable.

Public opinion

A unique fact that comes into play about the modern debate on the death penalty is the inclusion of human rights activism.  The civil society is more concerned about the human rights violation rather than offering alternative ways of dealing with this kind of criminals.  Majorly, the increase awareness of the human rights comes from the temperatures of political situations that was characterized by assassinations (Bing, 2012).  The public’s argument against the death penalty have been aggravated by the abolitionist group regarding many levels of society , including ethnic and racial segregation, issues surrounding the eye witness, false confession, application of the punishment sparingly and complications that characterize the use of DNA.  This argument has come out prominently more so in the legal and and scholarly community.  But sill some members of the public maintain their support of the death penalty.

The support though has considerably reduced over the recent past due to the emergence of life imprisonment.  The police and the judicial system are increasingly following the masses in rebuking the penalty.  Their attitudes  towards the sentence are in favor of abolition, though like the public have some proponents due to their emotions.  The general costs and the societal wrongs that are attached to death penalty leaves no doubt that it is a bad precedent in practice, so another alternative penalty should be used  to punish the criminals.

Conclusively the use of capital punishment should be abolished. The law enforcement and the justice system have ethical and moral values to uphold.  They should have therefore committed to ensuring that all persons get a fair share of justice which does not involve use of the death penalty.  It is apparent that however effective the death penalty is applied, it does not deter potential offenders from committing crime.

 

References

Arthur, L. & Paula M. (2002). Executive The Will of The Voters ?: A Roadmap to Mend or End The California Legislature’s Multi-Billion-Dollar Death Penalty Debacle. Loyola of Los Angeles Law Review 44, 224-41.

Bing, Z. (2012).Improvement of Rights Protection of Criminal of Death Penalty in China. School of Law Journal 8, 44-40.

Phillips, S. (2009). Criminology: Legal Disparities in Capital of Capital Punishment.Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology  99, 717-755.

Terrence P. & George F. (2012). A Tale of Two Towns: Why Relying on Aggravating Circumstances to Support Capital Punishment among Law Enforcement Has Become So Aggravating. International Journal of Business and Social Science 3, 111-103.

William, W. (2010). Ending Death Dangerousness A Palm to The Abolition of The Death Penalty. Arizona Law Review 52,924-889.

WMA News, (2010). White Paper On Ethical Issues Concerning Capital Punishment. World Medical Journal, 87-82.

 

 

Problems and challenges faced by WTO

An agreement was reached in the 1^st January 1995, to establish Word Trade Organization.  It was the same with its predecessor GATT, which had ruled the globe trade from 1940s. The tasks it performs are similar to those of GATT. Pressures from the outside have been a challenge to the organization’s long-run viability. The issue of overload is a challenge. Overload means excessive burden directed to WTO. It has been complicated for WTO to handle daily affairs arising within the organization (Arrowsmith, 2011).

Also, it is hard for the organization to partake episodic rounds of bilateral negotiations. More nations are concerned in the negotiations under this organization at present than under GATT. The more the nations are, the more the burden for WTO to handle. For instance, when GATT was initiated in 1948, only 23 member states signed.  But after the WTO started, 144 members signed by 2002. Conducting negotiations with all these nations is a large burden. Subsequently, the discussion staged in Tokyo and Uruguay’s rounds augmented the complexity and scope of trading. The results helped in dealing with import taxes by reducing a broadened diversity of governmental procedures that distort trade amongst nations.

The rising countries are dissatisfied with the contemporary system of WTO. These countries perceive it as extremely tough to handle the augmented and complex workload, which resulted from extension of rules to fresh economic areas. The nations that are developing have been questioning and comparing the benefits resulting from the new policy of WTO against the social and economic costs concerned in executing the fresh policies. Consequently, the developing states tend to think that they would benefit more from the agreements on apparel, agriculture and textiles than the developed countries (Gallagher, 2005). If an enormous number of developing states concludes that WTO is unprofitable, the repercussions would destroy the move by WTO to attain its fundamental goals.

Another challenge facing WTO is its new rules on social and domestic economy. The new set measures and rules significantly influence social and economic issues. The traditional ways of life and local economies are affected. There has been a feeling that the traditional ways of life, preserving the sovereignty of nations are ignored. This resulted from the fact the groups were not included in negotiations; therefore, they did not realize fully the consequences of these rules (Schott, 2000).

Legislation via the system of fresh dispute settlement is another challenge. The extension of WTO new rules brought about more disputes. This concurs to the expectations of members of WTO (Bossche, 2005). There are alterations on the manner of dispute handling. The process encourages settlement of dispute under legislation rather than the initial approach of a bargained dispute settlement.

WTO also faces challenges from emerging issues like the environment, competition, trade-related investments and labor-rights issues, which differ among its member countries. Several countries have proposed yearly that the authority of rule making in WTO should be expanded annually to incorporate these emerging issues (Lovric, 2010).

Ministers in the Doha round were able to discuss measure of addressing the challenges. Their focus was based on the developing states. All the negotiated issues were based on decisions taken through precise consensus. The agenda was meant for implementation.  The ministers in the Doha round accomplished negotiations sector of agriculture. They also accomplished the agreements, which all member states would sign.

It is apparent that WTO is faced by external and internal challenges, which threaten its viability. Through the utilization of current WTO rules, these challenges could be met. The declaration made by Doha round’s ministers explain how an agreement can be reached on a program for making important changes. The WTO needs several fixing devoid to abandon the current basic composition of the institution.

 

References

Arrowsmith, S. & Anderson, R. (2011). The WTO Regime on Government Procurement:

Bossche, P. (2005). The Law and Policy of the World Trade Organization: Text, Cases and Materials. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Gallagher, P., Low, P. & Stoler, A. (2005). Managing the Challenges of WTO Participation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Lovric, D. (2010). Deference to the Legislature in WTO: Challenges to Legislation. Alphen aan den Rijn: Kluwer Law International.

Schott, J.J. (2000). The WTO: After Seattle. London: Peterson Institute.

 

 

Gender in Determining the Experience of Childhood in Ancient Rome

As it has been observed throughout history, cultures have had their own mind set on the growth of individuals. Culture also dictates the way various genders and age groups should behave and relate towards one another. The variations that occur between the biological, chronological and the social aging of individuals in their different age transitions between life and death help in the determination of the character of the individual. In Rome, gender played an important role in determining the experiences of childhood and the transition from childhood to adulthood.

In ancient Rome, the personal attributes of the individual and the society as well as the different stages the different genders were exposed to help in the definition of the character of the children in their growing stages[1]. The wealth and the empowerment of a particular family was also a determining factor. Wealth in Rome made it possible for individuals to secure and acquire anything their hearts desired. As a result, there was a great difference in the lifestyle, character and the way of life led by children from wealthy and poor backgrounds.

The gender of the children in these families was also an influential factor whereby there was an expectation laid in the behavior exhibited. This is due to the reason that the different families have different moral codes to uphold and these moral codes differ with regard to the social status of a particular family. Childhood in the ancient Rome was a complex stage in the life of an individual because of issues of gender and the expectations placed on male and female children by the society. Different issues of behavior training that was tied to one’s gender marked childhood.

In Rome when a child was born, it was put on the father’s feet. If the father took the child in his arms, it showed that he had accepted the child as his own child and took all the priviledges of membership into the family. Until the age of seven, both girls and boys were put under the care of the mother to teach them how to speak Latin in a correct way. However, at the age of seven years and onwards, a boy was put under a regular teacher while the girl remained under the mother. The formal education for a girl child was shortened because she needed to learn issues about home management because of the fact that she would be married early. The girl learnt how to spin, sew and weave from the mother. The father, depending on his profession, trained the boy child. If the father was a farmer, the boy would be taught farming skills. Generally, fathers taught their children how to use weapons in military training in addition to swimming, wrestling and boxing[2].

Children had no independence in the ancient Rome. They were dependent on their parents especially the father for protection. The transition from childhood into adulthood, from parental domination into marriage only marked a change in identity but did not change the aspect of independence[3]. This is because a woman got from her father and brothers’ domination into her husband’s domination and later into her son’s dominations. This shows that the male child received an upper hand in terms of care because he was a source of protection to the mother and sisters in the family.

In Rome, the male head of the household had a lot of power, which meant that children especially girls had a few rights throughout the Roman Empire. In fact, in most literature works, the subject of children was given a little consideration. Most research centered on the family that included the natal family, conjugal rights and extended and foster families including slaves. The birth of children in the Roman Empire happened in the women’s quarters with other women present and a midwife. To announce the sex of the newborn child, the family of the newborn decorated the doorway with wool to symbolize that the child was a girl[4].

A wreath of olive in the doorway signified that the newborn was a male child. The male, who was the head of the house, had a right to accept the child into the household or refuse with respect to the gender of the child, the size of the family and the physical attributes of the child. Disposal was done simply by abandoning the infant to die on its own in order to avoid the guilt of killing (Laes 65). When the heads of the households made decisions to keep or dispose newborn, the issue of gender played a significant role. Male children were generally preferred to female children in ancient Rome. When the head of the household decided to raise a girl, the status of the male children remained higher than that of the children.

In ancient Rome, male children received distinctive personal names at the time of birth that did not have to do with their fathers’ names. On the other hand, girls were given their fathers’ names with a feminine ending. For instance, a man known as Julius would name his female child as Julia. In addition, the transition from childhood into adulthood in the Roman Empire was gender specific. Male children were subjected to rituals that were public and civic. These rituals focused on their political life and the socio-economic status that they were expected to have as heads of households. On the other hand, female children were subjected to rituals that were done privately[5]. The rituals were domestic and focused on their biological make up as child bearers and their social status as wives to be.

The male children had different experiences as compared to their female counterparts. The boys were allowed to roam around and play. They were allowed to see the outside more than the girls did. This is because girls were expected to be home keepers. Therefore, the outside was not important for them because it did not help them to learn their future roles as wives and child bearers. On the other hand, boys had to learn about the outside because they were taught the roles that have to do with protecting their families and the ability to provide for their families as breadwinners and as heads of their households.

Learning in Rome was based on fear. This was specifically meant for boys in the sense that they were beaten for the slightest mistake they did. This was done because of the belief that a boy would lean accurately and correctly if he feared cane. In fact, in some schools, a policy made two slaves hold a boy while the tutor beat him with a leather whip. Generally, girls also had schooling. They received their schooling at home. However, the subjects that girls learned differed from that of boys because they were specifically taught on home training. Therefore, boys and girls were treated differently in almost every aspect except at the age of between birth to about seven years when they were placed under the care of the mother. From then on, everything that boys did or were subjected to was different in every aspect. It is at the age of seven onwards that both boys and girls were taught lessons that would make them become responsible men and women when they become adults.

After birth, babies’ bodies were swaddled according to the sex of the baby. For instance, boys were swaddled more tightly around the pelvis than girls did. The midwife prodded and pushed the body of the young child is shape, for instance, extending the foreskin. Childhood was defined in two ways, in the Ancient Rome[6]. The two stages were from the time of birth to the age seven and from age seven to fourteen years. In the first stage, both male and female children were treated fairly the same.

The second stage of childhood was a bit different in the way girls and boys were handled. For instance, their fathers determined the age of maturity for boys. The father had the role of ensuring that a boy was physically and mentally healthy meaning that their physical and mental aspects determined the age they were considered adults. This was seen with regard to the fact that boys became men at the age of between fourteen and sixteen years old. In addition, the treatment of children as they were ushered into adulthood was different in terms of gender. For boys, coming of age would see them dedicate their Bulla to the protective deities who were referred to as Lares and were required to put on a Toga Virilis[7].

. In legal terms provided under the Roman Empire, boys were allowed to marry once they attained age fourteen. On the other hand, girls were not subjected to this type of ritual. On the other hand, girls could be married starting at age twelve, two years earlier than boys do. For female children, therefore, the marking of their coming to age was done through a wedding once they had someone to marry them.

Another aspect of gender that determined the experience of childhood in Roman Empire is the treatment of the dead children. In the Roman Empire, the deaths of male children were handled differently from the death of female children as seen in the emphasis on the epitaphs (Rawson 45)[8]. For the male children who died, their memorials were marked properly in epitaphs that mentioned their age. However, this did not mean that boys died more than girls did. Rather, it meant that the death and burial of girls was not taken seriously as that of the male children.

In conclusion, gender was very essential in determining the experience of childhood in ancient Rome. Gender issues as used in ancient Rome determined the experiences that children had. For instance, because the males were the heads of households and the ones responsible for the protection of their families, male children were preferred than the female children. Male children were taught issues of citizenship and economic status; whereas girls were taught domestic issues that would help them become good wives and child bearers. The difference in the handling of male and female children was specifically tied to the roles that they would become when they grew. For instance, when they grew up, girls were expected to become house wives and were supposed to do home chores and take care of children. Therefore, they were subjected to home training and good mannerisms. On the other hand, boys were expected to become breadwinners and provide protection for their families when they married. Therefore, they were taught military exercises and issues about professionalism in order to provide for their families when they married.

 

Works Cited

Rawson, Beryl. Children and Childhood in Roman Italy. London: Oxford University Press,

3. Print.

Laes, Christian. Children in the Roman Empire: Outsiders Within. London: Cambridge, 2011.

Print.

Kleijwegt, Mark. Ancient Youth: The ambiguity of youth and the absence of adolescence in

Greco-Roman society. Amsterdam: J.C. Gieben, 1991. Print.

Harlow, Mary and Ray Laurence. Growing Up and Growing Old in Ancient Rome: A Life

Course. London: Routledge, 2001. Print.

[1] Mary Harlow and Ray Laurence. Growing Up and Growing Old in Ancient Rome: A Life  Course. (London: Routledge, 2001, Print).12

Mary Harlow and Ray Lawrence, Growing up and Old

[2] Mary Harlow and Ray Laurence. Growing Up and Growing Old in Ancient Rome: A Life Course. (London: Routledge, 2001, Print).16

Mary Harlow and Ray Lawrence, Growing up and Old, 10-20

[3] Christian Laes. Children in the Roman Empire: Outsiders Within. (London: Cambridge, 2011). Print.

Christian Laes. Children in the Roman Empire, 34-40.

[4] Beryl Rawson. Children and Childhood in Roman Italy. (London: Oxford University Press, 2003, Print). 57

Beryl Rawson. Children and Childhood, 50-60.

[5] Mark Kleijwegt. Ancient Youth: The ambiguity of youth and the absence of adolescence in  Greco-Roman society, (Amsterdam: J.C. Gieben, 1991, Print). 34

Mark Kleijwegt. Ancient Youth, 30-40.

[6] Mark Kleijwegt. Ancient Youth: The ambiguity of youth and the absence of adolescence in Greco-Roman society, (Amsterdam: J.C. Gieben, 1991, Print). 54

Mark Kleijwegt. Ancient Youth, 50-56.

[7] Beryl Rawson. Children and Childhood in Roman Italy. (London: Oxford University Press, 2003. Print).45

Beryl Rawson. Children and Childhood, 40-47

[8] Beryl Rawson. Children and Childhood in Roman Italy, (London: Oxford University Press, 2003, Print).47

Beryl Rawson. Children and Childhood. 40-47

Social Movements

Social movements are informal groups of people or organizations that rise to execute a certain mandate. Their focus is on either a political or a social issue affecting society at a given time. Becker argues that modern social movements rose to power because of increased education and awareness among the populace (201). In addition, they were influenced by the increased mobilization of labor as well as industrialization of the 19th century (Mieder 345). Over the years, social movements have played a critical role in the democratization of nations. Indeed, their power and effectiveness have motivated the oppressed in many parts of the world to use them as a tool of bringing transformational leadership. To realize their objectives, the movements employed several tactics in their operations. This paper will evaluate some of these tactics in light of the objectives set by the leaders. Specifically, the paper will focus on why some of the events took place, as there was a certain motivation behind every action.

Social movements used several tactics to achieve their objectives (Becker 208). These strategies were started by a small group, mostly the leaders, and spontaneously gained support from other people. The motivating force behind the use of these tactics was that they had been used successfully by others in the fight for equality (Goodwin and Asper 27). For instance, Martin Luther King was greatly influenced by the non-violent protest of Mahatma Gandhi of India (Mieder 247). The tactics used included sit-ins, boycotts, protests, and marches. Using rousing and inspirational speeches and leadership, he and his fellow protesters organized boycotts of the buses and other businesses that were discriminating against the black people. His movement, Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) advocated for peaceful protests (Mieder 442). Another force that used non-violent means to achieve social justice was the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAAP). They wanted to achieve their objectives through non-violent ways (Mieder 22). The main objectives of Dr. King and the civil rights movement was equality of the races, where people are “ not judged by the color of their skin but the content of their character” (Mieder 244) in terms of jobs, politics, services, judicially and even socially. On of the most successful events was the boycott of the Montgomery city buses. The genesis of the boycott was that a forty-three-years old African woman had refused to give a white passenger her seat, after being instructed to do so by the bus drive. During this time, drivers were mandated by city ordinances to assign passengers seats (Mieder 473). The boycott lasted for one whole year, bringing the Civil Rights Movement to the limelight. The boycott of buses forced the repeal of city by-laws consigning blacks to the back of the bus.

Apart from boycotts, sit-ins were also organized in restaurants and other establishments to force them to abandon their racist regulations (Mieder 48). During the late 1950s, activists started experimenting with sit-ins as a way of mobilizing citizens to agitate for equality among the people in America. These sit-ins became the power behind most of the success of the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s (Goodwin and Asper 259). For instance, the NAAP Youth Councils, CORE chapter, and SCLC affiliates were the leaders in mobilizing the blacks to engage in these non-violent strategies.

Sit-ins were used as a non-violent strategy of civil disobedience to force the government to act on numerous cases of discrimination. Several groups used sit-ins to overcome many racially motivated barriers in America. One example of a successful sit-in was one conducted by members of Father Divine and the International Peace Mission in conjunction with the Cafeteria Workers Union in 1939” (Wilkerson, et al 432). The protest was used as a means of overcoming racial discrimination in the hiring process at the Shack Sandwich shop in New York. The groups went into the restaurant and bought cups of coffee, and refused to leave after taking their coffee. Customers and other patrons could not get sits as the protesters had occupied all of them (Goodwin and Asper 276).

The wave of sit-in continued in many parts of America to protest the many form of segregation that were supported by the states. In one of the early sit-ins, a group of three women and four men from Durham, NC, staged a sit-in in one of the restaurants in the city. Their sit-in was in protest of segregation that was rampant in the city. However, although they were arrested and charged with trespassing, their bold move and actions were an inspiration to others.

The 1960 Greensboro and Nashville sit-ins created nationwide awareness on the widespread cases of segregation in America (Wilkerson, et al. 293). Most of the participants were college students, who later became champions of the Civil Rights Movements in the 1960s. The students were thorough in their planning that amazed the white storeowners and government representatives. In a matter of days, several sit-ins were carried out in major cities targeting stores and public utilizes that practiced segregation. The largest and the most successful sit-in was the one in Nashville. It was hailed because it was well planned and had a proper groundwork support. The sit-in attracted thousands of participants and culminated in the “successful desegregation of Nashville lunch counter” (Wilkerson, et al. 293)

The judicial system was used to bring down discriminatory laws culminating in the Supreme Court declaring most of the laws as unconstitutional, such as Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka that led to the de-segregation of schools and education in general. The Supreme Court ruling on Brown vs. the Board of Education of Topeka ruled state laws that allowed segregation of school were illegal and violated the constitution. This decision went against a previous court ruling (Plesssy v. Ferguson) that allowed racial segregation in schools. Bus rides called freedom riders were organized into territories that prohibited blacks from sharing the same public accommodation or other public utilities with whites.

Protests and marches were held to highlight the injustices executed by governments and the whites on fellow citizens based on the color (Mieder 459). The largest peaceful protest was held in the Lincoln Memorial in Washington D.C in 1963 and it agitated for jobs and freedom. In this protest Dr. King gave his famous speech ‘I Have a Dream’ to a mammoth crowd (Navarro 444). The mainstream America was astonished by the record crowd that turned up for the rally signifying widespread support for the civil rights movement. Using what became known as ‘Jim Crow’ laws, local officials had disenfranchised the black population blocking them from voting in their representatives Hence the civil rights movement tried to organize the black population to register as voters in order to pursue their cause politically. The media was used to engage the white people to expose the indignities and unfairness the black population was being subjected to in a so-called free, fair, and democratic nation (Wilkerson, et al 352).

There is no gainsaying the impact of the sit-ins, protests and other means used by the advocates of the civil rights movements such as Dr King. The protests were non-violent and brought down institutionalized discrimination. In addition, they brought to the attention of the whole world the plight of the marginalized people in society. In America, legislations including the 24th Amendment outlawing the poll tax used to discriminate against black voters, Civil rights Act criminalizing forms of discriminations in education, jobs, and other spheres of life with a U.S Commission on Civil Rights and a civil department to enforce this law, were made possible by the power in these protests. In addition, a Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity was formed by President Kennedy to ensure equal job opportunities, thanks to power in the tactics employed by the advocates of equality in the social movements (Goodwin and Asper 420). The Voting Rights Act which aimed at enfranchising the black voter by giving the federal government authority to overrule local councils, notorious for using spurious grounds to bar black voters were actualized by the forces of social movements (Goodwin and Asper 22). Indeed, these are some of the direct results of the social movements. They indicate the magnitude and power of the methods used to challenge the status quo.

Works Cited

Navarro, Bob. The Country in Conflict: executives and events during the American Civil War. New York: Xlibris Corporation, 2008. Print.

Wilkerson, et al. Tennessee Women: their Lives and Times. New York: The University of Georgia Press, 2009. Print.

Goodwin, Jeff and Asper, M. James. The Social Movements Reader: Cases and Concepts. New York: Blackwell Publishing, 2009. Print.

Becker, Marc. Packakutik: indigenous movements and electoral politics in Ecuador. New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2011. Print.

Williams, Juan.Eyes on the Prize: America’s Civil Rights Years, 19541965 , Campbell, CA: Paw Prints, 2008. Print.

Role Model Reflection

Background

Florence Nightingale worked in England during periods when female nurses were scarce. As a child, she always cared for the ill, and as she grew, she believed God had chosen her to improve the health of the ailing people (Susan, 2007). While working for the British military, during the Caribbean war, she earned the title the “lady with a lamp.” This reflected of her commitment in her job even in harsh working conditions. Major reforms in nursing, especially nursing by female, have been profoundly attributed to her.

A role model

The clinical nurse who has acted as a role model is Florence Nightingale. Although her parents did not agree with her pursuing nursing as a career, she went ahead and did it. According to her, God had called her to his service, and nothing could stop her (Susan, 2007). This means that if one has a passion for nursing, he or she should just do as his or her heart directs. One should overcome all the barriers to achieve their dreams.

Nightingale hailed from a rich family, but this did not satisfy her. She was always concerned about people who were poor and ill (Susan, 2007). The poor could not afford to pay for medical bills. They languished in agony while their wealthy counterparts could even afford the luxury of home-treatment (Susan, 2007). Florence Nightingale had a passion to serve the less privileged in the society. As a nurse, one has to have compassion for the less privileged. One needs to spare resources (finances and time) to care for those who cannot afford medical care.

During Nightingale’s time, nurses did not receive any training and dealt mainly with odd jobs. Florence Nightingale felt a need for training before starting her job (Susan, 2007). In order to be an outstanding nurse, one needs to read and consult widely. This will be to ensure that the nurse has the vital skills plus knowledge on how to cope with patients.

Ever since her childhood, Florence kept records of everything that was happening around her. Even as a nurse, she excelled in graphical representation and statistics (Susan, 2007). The records acted as a reminder where the human mind cannot be relied. The records help in reducing errors.  As a good nurse, one needs to keep proper records in order to minimize errors. Errors in the medical field can be so serious or even fatal.

Nightingale was working in a harsh environment with unsophisticated equipment and a male-dominated field where people disregarded female nurses. She worked to improve conditions and used the available resources to do her job. Sometimes the work environment may not favor a medical practitioner. Poor or inadequate equipment, inconsiderate patients, poor management, and low wages are some of the challenges that nurse face while carrying out their duties. This should not dampen one’s spirit. They should learn to bear these and use their enthusiasm to achieve the best results Zemlicka & Debon, 2003).

Nightingale often worked into late night. She sacrificed her time to care for the sick. She did not entertain the thought of luxury at the expense of her patients. As nursing calls for sacrifice and commitment, one needs to use personal time to provide care to the sick.

Conclusion

Florence Nightingale is one of the most outstanding nurses that the world would ever have. Though long dead, her works still remain and can be witnessed the world round. She is a nurse that any other professional nurse should emulate.

References

Susan,  A. (2007). Florence Nightingale. Minneapolis: Lerner Publications Company

Zemlicka, S., & Debon, N. (2003). Florence Nightingale. Minneapolis: Carolrhoda Books.

 

Psychological Disorder

Introduction

Imagine a society where individuals cannot differentiate between imagination and reality. A society full of illusionary activities where one cannot tell whether the person or building is real or fiction. Imagine individual hearing sounds that are horrifying, skeptical, and threatening. It makes life to be miserable. It may sound fictitious, but this is the reality with individuals having schizophrenia. In the current society, schizophrenia has remained an obscurity that the neuroscience and psychiatry have never found the solutions to the problems. It is a condition that has been considered a disability by the psychiatrist with men between the ages 15 and 25 being prone to this infection. According to Ritsner (2010), schizophrenia is one of the fatal psychological disorders, and in an attempt to understand its effects in the society, the paper explores what entails schizophrenia, its causes, and the possible treatment associated with the disorder.

Overview of Schizophrenia

Hogarty (2002) defines schizophrenia as a syndrome that boggles an individual’s mind, thereby hindering his or her movement, speech, perception, and thoughts. It is quite similar to mental disorder as an individual losses the sense of reality and experiences hallucinations and delusional activities. Schizophrenia is divided into five different groups; paranoid-delusions of Grandeur, catatonic, residual, schizoaffective disorder, and disorganized disorder. In paranoid disorder, an individual believes that one must have to be powerful and much greater than the way they are. Hallucinations are the common symptoms under this form of disorder. Catatonic disorder is where an individual is mute, pessimistic, withdrawn and always assumes body positions that are unusual. Disorganized is where an individual shows disorganized behavior, immaturity in his/her emotions, and lack of remissions (Hogarty, 2002).

On the other hand, residual schizophrenia is demonstrated by an individual who was affected by schizophrenia and does not experience any form of hallucinations, but the person lacks interest or motivation of life. Schizoaffective disorder is demonstrated by individual who is depressed or major disorder on the mood of an individual. Like many other disorders and illnesses, schizophrenia demonstrates both the positive and adverse symptoms. The negative symptom is characterized by the ability of losing an individual’s personality such as withdrawn character, while the positive effects include delusions that improves an individual’s personality.

Causes of Schizophrenia

According to Ritsner (2010), there are no defined causes for this psychological disorder. However, scientists have demonstrated that there is no distinct cause of this disorder, but rather, various factors are known to be involved in the process. A study conducted by Hollandsworth (2000) shows that the risk of acquiring schizophrenia is high amongst families that they have schizophrenia patients as compared to the general population. It is believed that the schizophrenia is a genetic disorder, and may be felt across family members in the society. Individuals who were reported to have the disorder had one or more of their members in the family lineage with the disorder. Though in the modern society, genetic influence plays a minor role in the cause of schizophrenia, there is a tendency of medical practitioners and psychologists relying on the information regarding family backgrounds.

Consequently, individuals who abuse drugs are not immune to the disorder. Medical drugs, whether abused or not, cannot cause schizophrenia. However, other drugs like amphetamine, LSD, and marijuana causes the disorder. This is because these drugs are characterized by causing mental disturbances that may lead to inactiveness and hallucinations on the user. Marijuana is commonly abused in most regions across the globe—without considering the implications on an individual’s health and it illegality. It is a concern that majority of the youths are the ones who are affected by these drugs. Some of the Non-governmental organizations have strategized on educating the society on the psychological effects when one consumes these drugs, but without any measurable success (Ritsner, 2010).

Physical chemistry and abnormality have necessitated schizophrenia disorder in the society. Children and young individuals may possess malfunctioned or abnormal brain development, which may lead to the disorder. At a tender age, a child may have hallucinations, and people may believe that it is a curse. In addition, hallucinations may be facilitated by a physical harm on the head. In most cases where an individual is subjected to brain injury, chances of having schizophrenia are high unlike an individual who has been taken handled careful by his/her seniors.  Brain injury is rampant in women who are schizophrenia as they induce injury to the baby during pregnancy. According to Hogarty (2002), children whose mothers suffer from schizophrenia and have experienced complications in the course of delivery have a tendency of developing complications than those schizophrenia mothers whose deliveries were unremarkable.

Treatment of Schizophrenia

As there is no specific treatment for schizophrenia, many people suffering from this disorder live a productive life when it is properly treated. Most effective treatments which are used for treating this particular illness involve antipsychotic medication. Schizophrenia usually occurs in two symptoms—positive and negative symptoms. Convectional antipsychotic medication is used to prevent positive symptoms. Both the negative and positive symptoms are treated by modern antipsychotic medication.

Although this treatment plays a vital role in mitigating the adversity of the disorder, there is need for psychological treatment on the patient. Various services have been instigated with an aim of reducing the effect of the illness. Firstly, psychosocial programs which make an individual regain knowledge and skills in various perspectives should be instilled on an individual. Some of the programs offered include cooking, socializing, employment, stress management, shopping, cleaning, and budgeting .Secondly, various people may engage in formation of a self help group. The group will take part in supporting and provision of information to those individuals who experience serious mental illness. Thirdly, employment opportunities should be created to those people who have passed the rehabilitation process. This will enable them to acquaint themselves with the daily needs without depending on other people. Lastly, emergency services should be created. Patients suffering from schizophrenia should go for checkup regularly. Furthermore, guiding and counseling of patients should be put in place. The patient has to be taught on the activities that he/she should undertake in order to lessen the chances of being schizophrenia patient.

Conclusion

Schizophrenia is a severe ailment that has left most of the children without responsible parents. Though it may be a disorder that can be prevented—by minimizing drug and substance abuse—some of its causes cannot be managed. Schizophrenia patient’s may have genetically inherited the disorder from their family lineage or may have been born abnormal.  This does not mean that there are no preventive measures that will subdue its effects. Some of the measures include medical and psychological treatment. However, it is the hope of the society that scientists and psychologists may find a specific medication for this ailment.

 

References

Hogarty, G. (2002). Personal therapy of schizophrenia and related disorders: a guide to individualized treatment, New York: Guilford Press.

Hollandsworth, J. (2000). The physiological of psychological disorders: schizophrenia, depression, anxiety and substance abuse, London: Springer.

Ritsner, M. (2010). Brain protection in Schizophrenia, mood and cognitive disorders, London: Springer.

 

 

Mandatory Retirement for employees:

The Issues Introduction Mandatory retirement is a controversial policy that has attracted critical issues among the unions, legislators, employers and employees who are approaching retirement age. Some concerns raised against the practice questions whether employees should retire at some particular age and what would be the appropriate age at which employees should retire. Furthermore, activists are worried of the effect of this practice on its stakeholders. States have faced serious problems when setting and implementing mandatory retirement age policy (Gunderson & Institut, 2004). A great controversy emerges with the effort of establishing whether the policy is beneficial or destructive. Whereas some scholars believe that mandatory retirement is essential, some activities have strongly criticized the policy. The idea of “normal retirement age” is contentious because legislative, economic, social and demographic forces alter the opportunities and perceptions of when an employee should retire (Warman & Worswick, 2010). This necessitates the significance of examining the issues associated with the mandatory retirement age. Legislative framework for mandatory retirement in Canada Regulations prohibiting age discrimination in the country were initially introduced in 1964. The province of British Columba integrated these regulations into the human rights provisions by 1970s. A strategic move adopted by the Canadian government includes the formulation of a comprehensive federal Charter of Rights and Freedom (CRF) in the year 1982 (Clark, Hammond & Wharton 2001). The country included this Charter in the Constitution Act providing it with extensive authority. The Charter includes various regulations that control factors such as employees’ compensation, safety and collective bargaining. Furthermore, the Act discourages discrimination against employees on the bases of their age, physical disability, race, religion and sex (Gillin, 2005). This means that in Canada, age discrimination is illegal at provincial and federal levels according to CRF guidelines. Manitoba and Quebec were the first provinces to ban mandatory retirement following the CRF’s provisions. Later, Quebec included the Charter in its labor standards provisions. Lately, most Canadian provinces excluding New Brunswick has banned regulations that grant employers authority of sacking workers who have attained an age of 65 (Willes & Willes, 2012). However, there are some limits to such guidelines because most provinces have schemes that allow imposition of compulsory retirements for jobs that demand physical strength such as military work and firefighting. In the last decades, most political leaders have emphasized the need of re-evaluating the mandatory retirement regulations (Schlachter, 2011). Scholars argue that if the retirement age had increased with the extended life expectancies, today’s equivalent age should be between 75 and 80 years (Warman & Worswick, 2010). However, Britain has maintained a mandatory retirement age of 60 or 65 in the public sector. The country has also set a mandatory retirement age of 75 among the judges with the exception of High Court Judges. Particularly, Canada presently has three jurisdictions that include the Newfoundland, British Columba and the Saskatchewan that have adopted an age cap of 65 (Willes & Willes, 2012). In this context, the country’s regulations provide an avenue through which employers can discriminate against workers who are under 19 or over 65 years. In the country, few regulations define an age at which workers should retire. Basic exceptions to these regulations exist for military personnel, airline pilots and judges. Employers apply a policy of compulsory retirement where they require workers to step down at a predetermined time. Countries do not present uniform pattern of mandatory retirement, but mainly most forced retirements occur at the age of 65 (Gillin, 2005). Major concerns associated with the mandatory age policy The subject of mandatory age requirement has attracted mixed reactions from various stakeholders. Some scholars regard compulsory retirement as a strategic approach of addressing the labor and societal problems in the contemporary society. However, few individuals are opposed to the regulation because they believe that the practice promotes discriminations within the labor force. Arguments in support of the policy Initially, Labor movements fear that the abolishment of mandatory retirement would create a situation where older workers are flooded in workforce while establishing a less generous social security. The group argues that this practice is essential because it provides the society with ideal approach of avoiding the effect of old workforce that is less productive. The age of 65 is considered to an average age at which most people starts experiencing physical and mental complications (Fredman et al, 2003). Consequently, mandatory retirement has the potential of protecting against the harmful effects that emanate from faults or misjudgment by elderly experts (Clark, Craig & Wilson, 2003). This is especially fundamental for the sensitive careers such as in the case of judges, private practitioners and surgeons. These professionals have a considerable effect over the lives of most individuals. For example, incompetence causes severe harm in situations of surgical procedures and judicial decisions (Templer & Armstrong-Stassen, 2008). Activists argue that mandatory retirement minimizes the scope of employer monitoring and evaluating older workers by setting a specified date of retirement. Furthermore, mandatory retirement plans provide the government and employers with a strategy of minimizing pension benefits that force employees to remain employed for long (Fornero, 2005). Furthermore, strong argument highlights that compulsory retirement creates jobs and promotions for the youthful workers that reduce the unemployment rates. Gomez & Gunderson (2011) asserts that considering the high unemployment rate in most states, mandatory retirement is of great importance because it could create opportunities for the youth who are in urgent need of the resources. Creating jobs for the youths is essential because individuals in the group are at the age of supporting themselves, establishing lifestyle and supporting their families (Monaghan, 2012). Furthermore, the practice is economically important because supporting unemployed youths is costly than paying the pensions. Gunderson & Institut (2004) argues that the youths should have opportunities of acquiring careers and establishing themselves because encouraging this at a later age is extremely hard. Providing youths with opportunities is a strategic approach of making long-term investment (Clark, Hammond & Wharton, 2001). Abolishment of mandatory age retirement policy would demoralize the youth because they can hardly obtain top positions in the presence of elderly professionals. When a person retires from the workforce, the management fills his or her position by promoting another relatively experienced employee (Schlachter, 2011). This procedure continues and eventually an entry-level position becomes available to a relatively young and unexperienced employee. Scholars observe that lack of mandatory retirement is likely to jeopardize the growth of the minorities (Monaghan, 2012). Consequently, strategists insist that establishing flexible professional hierarchies provide the youths with the opportunities of attaining high levels of their career. For example, in the judicial system and law the younger workers should wait for an elder reputable consultant to retire in order acquire a higher level of their career. Mandatory retirement creates a favorable environment for the exposure of the youthful talents. This practice allows the youths who have new and modern skills to infiltrate the professionals (Clark, Craig & Wilson, 2003). Mandatory age retirement also creates fair labor procedures that value the need of providing equal opportunities. Clark, Hammond & Wharton (2001) argue that under basic principle, it unfair to force some employees to retire at the age of the 65 while allowing others to continue working. Equality principles would expect that all compulsory retirement plans should force individuals to retire at the same age disregarding the nature of their careers. However, this is not the situation because the present plan allows some individuals to continue holding positions even after attaining the age of 65. According to Lund (2004), discrimination in the labor environment occurs when personal traits other than productivity determines an individual’s status in labor force. This means that in the labor market where salaries mainly reflect one’s productivity, the salary of the aging employee who presents a decline in productivity should fall accordingly. Surprisingly, this is not the situation because wages of most employees increases as they age. These ideologies present high levels of discriminations within the labor environment (Gomez & Gunderson, 2011). According to Clark, Craig & Wilson (2003), the society should not consider compulsory retirement as a reprimand of the elderly, but the move should be regarded as a well-earned rest and reward of the long period of work. Studies indicate that from the health perspective, retiring at the age of 65 is beneficial because at this level people are at risk of developing stress related complications. This means that a mandatory retirement policy would save the elderly from stressful work environment that may worsen their health condition (Beam & McFadden, 2001). Arguments against the policy Individuals have questioned the principles and assumptions of the mandatory retirement scheme. Initially, people objecting the policy clams that there is no medical confirmation that individual of age above 65 are infirm or incapable. Furthermore, there are effective safeguards to determine malpractice or incompetence in the professions like medicine and law where the law would be sensitive. Consequently, this group observes that labor policies should work on the matter of incompetence or one’s health at individual levels instead of punishing workers who are prepared to work beyond the age of 65 (Fornero,2005). Furthermore, scholars argue that the world’s population is presently ageing as persons are living longer due to improved living standards. This means that forcing people to retire is likely to increase the economic burden of pensioners on the governments. Furthermore, the ratio of dependent group to the working groups continues to increase (Lund, 2004). Consequently, the mandatory retirement policy appears as an unnecessary approach that antagonizes the problem. This means that the government should aggressively encourage those who are capable to continue working instead of discouraging them. Further arguments insist that it is not the duty of the government to decide what persons need to do. This means that if an individual is willing to work and has the capability of executing his or her duties the government has no right of deterring such a person from working (Hae-Chun, Joonmo & Kwangho, 2011). Some scholars feel that the assumption that the introduction of the younger employees to the labor forces improves the standards of the professions is misguided. The youths mainly present lower standards because they lack essential experience. The elderly group has accumulated skills obtained through their long period of service (Templer & Armstrong-Stassen, 2008). Consequently, these professionals are highly proficient at their work and utilize their experience in solving sophisticated work related challenges. Moreover, individuals present unique skills meaning that the idea of generalizing a group is misinformed. Often, the mandatory plan makes organizations force individuals who have exceptionally skills to retire on bases of their age. This is detrimental because the organization may fail to get others persons with the same skills to fill the positions (Beam & McFadden, 2001). Conclusion It is apparent that the policy of the mandatory retirement remains controversial. Adoption of the plan attracts serious legal concerns. The policy promotes discrimination and infringes into the right of the elderly by denying them the option of working at their will. However, abolishing the regulation is also detrimental considering the effect of old aged workforce and their potential in denying youths a favorable environment of developing their skills and growing their careers. This highlights the need of re-examining the policy in order to establish a strategic plan that aligns with the contemporary labor and social demands. References Beam, B. T., & McFadden, J. J. (2001). Employee benefits. Chicago, Ill: Real Estate Education Co. Clark, R. L., Craig, L. A., & Wilson, J. W. (2003). A history of public sector pensions in the United States. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Clark, R. L., Hammond, P. B., & Wharton School. (2001). To retire or not?: Retirement policy and practice in higher education. Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press. Fornero, E. (2005). Pension systems: Beyond mandatory retirement. Cheltenham [u.a.: Elgar. Fredman, S., Fredman, S., Spencer, S., & Spencer, S. (2003). Age as an equality issue: Legal and policy perspectives. Oxford [u.a.: Hart. Gillin, C. T. (2005). Time’s up!: Mandatory retirement in Canada. Toronto: Lorimer. Gomez, R., & Gunderson, M. (2011). For Whom the Retirement Bell Tolls: Accounting for Changes in the Expected Age of Retirement and the Incidence of Mandatory Retirement in Canada. Canadian Public Policy, 37(4), 513-539. Gunderson, M., & Institut C.D. Howe. (2004). Banning mandatory retirement: Throwing out the baby with the bathwater. Toronto: C.D. Howe Institute. Hae-Chun, R., Joonmo, C., & Kwangho, W. (2011). Value-added Effect of Labor Productivity in Extending the Mandatory Retirement Age: Evidence from Korea. Engineering Economics, 22(4), 402-411. Lund, J. V. (2004). Military pay, benefits and retirement. New York: Nova Science Publishers. Monaghan, C. (2012). Justifying Direct Age Discrimination: When will a Mandatory Retirement Age not Amount to Direct Age Discrimination? Seldon v Clarkson Wright & Jakes. Journal Of Business Law, (6), 479-485. Schlachter, M. (2011). Mandatory Retirement and Age Discrimination under EU Law. International Journal Of Comparative Labour Law & Industrial Relations, 27(3), 287-299. Templer, A. J., & Armstrong-Stassen, M. (2008). The HR Management Perspective on the Elimination of Mandatory Retirement in Ontario. Relations Industrielles / Industrial Relations, 63(4), 603-624. Warman, C., & Worswick, C. (2010). Mandatory Retirement Rules and the Retirement Decisions of University Professors in Canada. Labour Economics, 17(6), 1022-1029. doi:10.1016/j.labeco.2010.04.014 Willes, J. A., & Willes, J. H. (2012). Contemporary Canadian business law: Principles & cases. United States of America, USA: McGraw-Hill Ryerson.

Establishing a Construction Equipment Sales and Distribution Business into the New Republic of South Sudan

Abstract

This paper discusses import/export entry mode that will be suitable for the construction equipment sales and distribution business into the new republic of South Sudan. The paper also discusses the international functions that will require some modification when the business has arrived in the foreign market. These are: international operations, international human resources management, andinternational R&D.Lastly, the paper looks at the costs and benefits for the host country and the investor. A number of articles and texts on international business were reviewed to offer insights into the real experiences in the foreign market.

Establishing a Construction Equipment Sales and Distribution Business into the New Republic of South Sudan

When a company decides to venture into the international market, it has to consider a number of entry modes and choose the right one in order to make the best use of their resources. In particular, a company might adopt exporting, licensing, franchising, joint ventures or having wholly owned subsidiaries in the foreign countries. Each of these entry modes, however, has its own advantages and disadvantages (Zekiri and Angelova, 2011). Much research has been carried out focusing on the suitable entry modes in different countries, but the bulk of researches have focused on the developed world and the developing countries of South East Asia and South America. Because of the evolving dynamics of globalization in the contemporary times, I have decided to focus on the underdeveloped regions of Africa, specifically; South Sudan. I will discuss the most appropriate entry mode for a construction equipment sale and distribution business into the new republic, which in this case is exporting.Then,I will discuss the international functions-,international operations, international human resources management, and international R&D- that require modification once a firm has entered into a foreign country.Finally,I will explore the costs and benefits for the host country and the investors.Specifically,I will focus on the costs and benefits I am bringing to South Sudan, and to myself.

Exporting Entry Mode

Choice of entry mode is considered one of the most critical decisions for an international bound firm (Root, 1994). International market is challenging owing to issues of different cultures, languages, currency, legal and political systems, as well as lack of market experience on the part of the firm. A wrong or inappropriate choice of entry mode is bound to have great consequences that could affect the entire organization. Most companies venturing out into foreign markets for the first time, however, usually do so through export entry mode.

Export entry mode involves manufacturing goods in the home country and then sending them to the foreign market. Exporting can be either direct or indirect depending on the company’s preferences and market circumstances. Direct export often entails the firm selling to final users through established company branch offices, wholesalers, stockists, distributors, or agents. In addition, the internet and E-Commerce can be used to facilitate direct export. Indirect export is carried out through export management firms, export houses, or buying houses (Canabal & White, 2008).

Export selling is considered the typical initial step in the internationalization process. For our case, entry into South Sudan market can be viewed as experimental, reactive and a not so much focused approach, at least for now. Exporting is essentially an ethnocentric orientation since production takes place in the home market, and companies go to sell the products or services abroad.

Adoption of exporting mode to South Sudan will be advantageous for a number of reasons: in terms of costs, the concentration of production in the home country minimizes overheads just as is the case with the small start. Exporting will also enable the business realize experience-curve cost and location economies. When a company concentrates production in a centralized location and then exporting to foreign markets, it achieves global economies of scale owing to global sales volumes (Zekiri and Angelova, 2011).

However, in as much as this mode is the most well-established for reaching foreign markets, it has certain disadvantages. High freight costs associated with transporting heavy machinery to South Sudan can make exporting uneconomical. Potential costs of trade barriers in forms of tariffs and quotas likely to be imposed by South Sudan government also make this mode costly. Also, through exporting mode, there is a possibility of the business getting overwhelmed by customers hence not serve them well.Lastly,relying on exporting effectively prevents a business to benefit from any potential economies of scale(ibid).

In the light of the above highlights about export mode, it is apparent that this mode is appropriate where the trade barriers are low, the goods are similar and do not need customization, and the domestic location has unmatched cost advantages (ibid).In south Sudan, the fact that the country is in dire need of construction machinery might suggest there are low levels, or no barriers in form of tariffs. This is owing to the fact that the country lacks local heavy machines industries to protect with tariffs.

Functions that will Need Modification

International Human Resource Management

Human resource management practices will have to be modified to suit the local market situations. In our case, we will seek to develop HR strategies that take cognizance of the fact that we shall be largely dealing with two sets of workers: local, and foreign. These will at times hold similar or disparate roles and this will force the HR manager to design a fair compensation system that will  motivate the employees while taking into account their cultural differences.

Moreover, issues to do with job classification, compensation systems, and training and development as well as the appraisal systems must change so as to be sensitive to the South Sudanese legal and cultural requirements. The hiring practices will have to be modified also so as to accommodate the locals who may not be necessarily as highly trained as the expatriates. All this, however, will be done while paying attention to the delicate balancing act of having local representation in employment, and also a staff that is of global standards (Kefalas, 2008).

The home country of the business is in the developed world where labor unionism is on the decline. In South Sudan, and other developing world, issues of labor unionism are prominent and the society and media supports them. Owing to this reason, the unions in South Sudan could have a considerable sway over human resources practices, unlike in the home country. The issues these unions will be dealing with concern salary rise. In the domestic market, the unions certainly deal with other issues. For these reasons, labor relation practices will have to be modified.

Research and Development (R&D)

Research and Development (R&D) refers to the function of seeking new knowledge and applications which can lead to new and improved products or processes( investment “remains a strategic priority for MNEs” (Arzumanyan, MayrHofer, & Melin, 2012, p.3).It, however, creates managerial challenges for globally competing MNEs.Some of the R&D issues that require modification will have to do with “coordination and how to manage relationship between R&D operations around the world”(Nobel and Birkinshow,1998 as cited in Arzumanyan,MayrHofer,& Melin,2012).In the case of our business in south Sudan, the R&D function will require modification so that it is able to accurately identify consumer trends and dynamics in the new market and use the information to innovate.

Having originated from the developed world where technological advancement is considered high, and often used as the global benchmark, it is natural that the R&D function is attuned to be only receptive to the new knowledge arising from the domestic country.However, as history of innovation has shown, innovation and new knowledge pertinent to R&D function knows no borders and can be found everywhere. The major modification for us as a company will be orienting the R&D systems to tap even the indigenous knowledge and innovation.

It has been established that generally internationalized R&D activities tend to block communication between the customers and the R&D managers.Consequently; this hinders the exchange of critical market intelligence with regard to customer tastes and preferences. Granted the extent of local variations of taste, infrastructure, and wealth in South Sudan, it makes it necessary for the modification of R&D to align the new products with the expectations of the customers there (Zedtwitz, Gassmann, &Boutellier, 2004).

International Operations

International operation is another international function that requires modification once the company has set foot on South Sudan. The imperative to operate in domestic, global and foreign markets complicates operations in the sense that the three are quite different in terms of values and present unique sets of challenges to managers. While domestic market environment is composed of the uncontrollable forces within the home country, foreign environment concerns all the forces originating outside of the country. International environment is the interaction between the domestic and foreign forces. The international operations will be defined by the three forces. The operations manager will have to deal with conflict issues that have been heightened in the management of international operations (Forrrester, n.d).

Costs and Benefits for the Host Country and Investor

There are costs and benefits of entering the South Sudan market through exporting. These apply to both the investor and the country. To begin with, the host country, South Sudan, will benefit from increased investment, which will in turn lead to an increase in employment. This will eventually lead to improved living standards of the citizens, owing to the salaries they get. A proportionately large population that is employed in any country helps the government achieve its revenue collection goals, and the money collected in form of taxes is directed to the efforts to grow the national economy. The heavy equipment sold by our company will help in infrastructure development.

To the investor, there are benefits in form of increased sales and consequently higher profits. Also, the business will attain a wide market share thus spread risks and attain competitive advantages in the market. Construction equipment is quite bulky. The major cost therefore to the investor is high transportation cost as goods are hauled from the home country to South Sudan. In addition, it is much more costly to transport the equipment within the country owing to its remoteness and lack of infrastructure.

 

Conclusion

Overall, I have discussed the export entry mode which I find appropriate for our business as it ventures into the new market. The paper has also discussed the following international functions that will have to be modified to suit the local conditions: international operations, international human resources management, and international R&D.Finally; I have discussed the benefits and costs for the host country and to me as an investor.

References

Arzumanyan, L., MayrHofer, U., &Melin, C. (2011, September).Conducting R&D Activities in

Multinational Companies: Towards New Tools and Practices? Paper Presented at the

Workshop on IT for product & Service Innovation in an Internationally Distributed Context,

Skema Business School.

Bhaumik, S.K (2003, February).Determinants of MNC’s Mode of Entry into an Emerging

Market: Some Evidence from Egypt and South Africa. Paper Presented at the Centre

For New and Emerging Markets, London Business School, London.

Canabal, A., &White, G.O. (2008).Entry mode research: past and future. International Business

     Review, 17,267-284.

Forrester, P.L. (n.d).social and cultural considerations for international operations. Retrieved

From http://archive.iamot.org/paperarchive/122B.PDF.

Root, R.F. (1994).Entry strategies for international markets. San Francisco, California: Jossey-

Bass, Inc.Publishers.

Zedtwitz, M., Gassmann, O., &Boutellier, R. (2004).Organizing global R&D: challenges and

Dilemmas. Journal of International Management, 10, 21-49.

Zekiri, J., &Angelova, B. (2011).Factors that influence entry mode choice in foreign markets.

European Journal of Social Sciences, 22(4), 574-584 Retrieved from ww.eujournals.com/

 

 

 

Florence Nightingale: A Nursing Theorist

Many nursing theorists have contributed to the field of nursing. Florence Nightingale was the first nursing theorist who developed the theory of Environmental Theory in Nursing. Florence Nightingale was born on May 12 in 1820, in a town called Florence in Italy. One of the most notable contributions that Nightingale made is that, in unison with a team of nurses, Nightingale helped to improve the sanitary conditions at one British Base hospital and reduced the deaths of patients by two thirds. Nightingale’s writings during her life generated health care reform throughout the world. In 1860, she developed her hospital called St. Thomas Hospital and the Nightingale Training School for Nurses that helped train effective nurses.

Florence was the younger one in her family where she had one sibling. She was born in an affluent British Family that belonged to the elite social class. Despite her mother’s struggle and yearn for upper social class movement, Florence was reportedly awkward in social spheres. She avoided being the center of attraction. Florence was provided with classical education that included studies in French, German and Italian. Throughout her life, she was interested in philanthropy. She ministered to the poor and the sick who lived in the village next to her family’s estate. By age 16, her interest in nursing was very clear. At first, her parents forbade her from becoming a nurse. During the Victorian era, a young girl who occupied her social status was supposed to marry a wealthy man and not take up a job that was considered demeaning by the upper social class. She refused a marriage proposal at age 17 stating that she needed moral active nature satisfaction. She enrolled as a nursing student in 1844, at Lutheran Hospital directed by Pastor Fliedner. In the 1850s, nightingale worked as a nurse in London, in Middlesex Hospital. She went on to work and write as a nurse and received various recognitions from King Edward in 1908 and from King George in 1910. She fell sick in 1910 and died on Saturday August 13 at her home, in London (Nightingale & McDonald, Florence Nightingale: An Introduction to Her Life and Family, 2001).

The environmental theory developed by Florence Nightingale focusses on a holistic approach to the environment (physical, psychological and social) and how it affects the health of individuals. Her theory emphasized that, for individuals to be healthy, the environment must promote health. Therefore, through the establishment of a healthy environment, nurses could be better placed to provide quality care for patients. The theory emphasizes that man is responsive to the environment and had reparative powers when put in a healthy environment. However, man was not just an individual but a combination of his environment and the effect that the environment places on him.

Her theory was based on several assumptions. It emphasized on natural laws. Some of the assumptions are that man can achieve perfection; nursing is a calling, an art and science, can be achieved through environmental modification, requires specific educational orientation and is separate and distinct from medicine. The theory emphasized that the environment should provide proper ventilation, light and warming. Noise should be avoided and cleanliness of rooms and walls ensured. Beds and beddings should be clean, in addition to personal cleanliness. Her theory emphasizes on nurses who must be subservient to doctors and should provide all these aspects. Florence held that patients must be put in the best conditions that allows nature to act on them. Nurses are responsible in reducing noise and relieving the anxieties that patients may have and help them get proper rest. Concerning health, the theory states that health does not only mean to be well but the ability to use well all the powers people have. Diseases are considered as the absence of comfort.

Florence Nightingale’s environmental theory of nursing can be applied to education, research and practice. Nightingale was the first to state that nursing required specific education. This means that a nurse cannot be effective without proper nursing education. Nightingale’s theory can be applied to education of nurses in the sense that nurses should be taught their responsibilities as nurses including the principles that guide the nursing profession, such as advocacy as a functional principle. Secondly, an understanding that nursing is an art and science is helpful in the education of nurses by making them understand that nursing does not just depend on science principles but also integrates principles of art bringing in the importance of the environmental arrangement (Nightingale & McDonald, Florence Nightingale on Public Health Care: Collected Works of Florence Nightingale, 2004).

In research, this theory can also be helpful in a way that it can be used as a theoretical framework in the study of phenomenon or topics that are related to nursing, such as the importance of environment to nursing. The principles brought up in the theory can also be used in current research activities, in nursing.

In practice, the environmental theory is very crucial in the sense that it helps the nurse put the life and health of the patient as the most important aspects. A nurse can modify the environment to provide cleanliness, ventilation and an encouraging atmosphere to promote healing. A nurse will understand that the environment is very important in supporting a patient to heal, thus modify it to provide better healing conditions for the patient.

In conclusion, Florence Nightingale was the first nursing theorist who developed the environmental theory of nursing that emphasizes on the importance of environment on the healing ability of patients. The principles of the theory can be effectively applied on education, research and practice of nursing.

References

Nightingale, F., & McDonald, L. (2001). Florence Nightingale: An Introduction to Her Life and Family. Canada: Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press.

Nightingale, F., & McDonald, L. (2004). Florence Nightingale on Public Health Care: Collected Works of Florence Nightingale. Canada: Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press.

 

 

Political science

The “Press Release Announcing U.S. recognition of Israel” was a temporary and governmental document that proclaimed Israel a new state issued at twelve midnight on May 14, 1948. In terms of representing the public policy process on both a domestic and international level, the “Press Release Announcing U.S. recognition of Israel” was successful. This is because the document was followed by President Truman’s official recognition of a Jewish rule as de factor authority. The “Transcript of John Glenn’s Official Communication with Command Central” strived to keep administration of the spacecraft. Glenn watched as massive pieces flew past the window and questioned whether it was the retropack or heat armor collapsing. Therefore, the transcript met the measures and requirements of the public policy process. International and domestic spacecraft manufactures are now bound by the policies instilled in this transcript (Milner, 1997, p. 121).

The “Manhattan Project Notebook” had Fermi direct the building of a mountain of graphite and uranium slabs and wooden lumbers. They were assembled in the exact arrangement essential for initiating and halting a nuclear sequence reaction. The “Public Policy Process and Nuclear Weapons” met the standards of the domestic and international community (Milner, 1997, p. 278). According to the Public Policy Protocol, the report makes note of Iran’s nuclear program posing as the most vital challenge to reinforcing the regulations oriented control government. This hinders a nuclear arms race in the Middle East. In the “Truman Doctrine,” there was an external response to political issues in Greece. The international community was not making policies in the best interests of maintaining the provision of financial support to the Greek regime. At that time, Greece was under fire by Marxist guerillas. The Marshall Plan was an inevitable connection to the program of enclosing the Soviet Union. Probably, the domestic and international community was more than a component of pivotal vitality in developing the East-West dispute in Europe. The Public Policy Protocol was well represented in the nuclear Test Ban Treaty. This is because the treaty made India and Pakistan debate their latest propagation in light of parameters made from the confirmation of the nation’s diplomatic influence (Milner, 1997, p. 221).

 

References

Milner, H. V. (1997). Interests, Institutions, and Information: Domestic Politics and            International Relations. New York: Princeton University Press