Author: chris

 

Analysis of Essay

Indeed, the issue of academic freedom continues to elicit different reactions among institutional stakeholders and political individuals. On one hand, opposers assert that the respective tenet needs to have limitations in order to limit academic persons such as scholars, lecturers and professors from making contradictory and controversial assertions. Alternately, supporters of this notion allege that such personnel require expressing themselves since it is their right to exude their convictions and ideas irrespective of the implications they may pose. Nonetheless, is it possible for scholars to engage in such behavior under the context of academic freedom? The answer to that is blurry based on the actuality that most do not understand the true definition of academic freedom. Stanley Fish’s article, Conspiracy Theories 101, provides a platform for assessing whether academic freedom comprises the freedom to perform an academic occupation devoid of external interruption.

In overview, the article involves understanding academic freedom based on expression. Fish attempts to provide his own definition of this particular ideology by using controversial scholar, Kevin Barrett, as an example. Accordingly, Barrett, one of the lecturers at the University of Wisconsin, surmised that the destruction of the World Trade Centers during the 9/11 Attacks was a result of the American government (Fish 1). As expected, the views exuded by the academic caused upheaval among individuals with each side generating argumentative concerns regarding the tenet of academic freedom. Irrespective of the statements propelled for and against academic freedom such as those advocating for limitation of academic freedom, Fish provides his own definition of academic freedom by correcting both sides of the argument. In addition to this, the author also provides a myriad of examples, which guarantee the validity of his claim concerning the respective issue.

Foremost, Fish defines academic freedom as the right to engage in any academic activity without interference from outside parties. Simply, educational autonomy offers a platform for academics to express themselves in words as well as actions to their students without involvement from external groups. Accordingly, the definition provided by the author differs considerably from others provided within the article. This is because such delineations only concentrate on the protection of the academic content. For instance, supporters of Barrett’s hypothesis assert that the content disseminated should not be under restriction since it is the right of the academician to express his or her views (Fish 1). Dissenters, on the other hand, view academic freedom as a medium that requires limitations pertaining to the content conveyed, which may seem controversial among the majority.

In addition to Fish’s definition, academic freedom also comprises the autonomy that academicians possess in the research and study of anything that is susceptible towards academic investigation and assessment irrespective of its fallibility. Indeed, if the study offers an intellectual payoff, then that is academic freedom. For example, if an academic desires to research trivial subjects such as lingerie advertisements, golf tees, as well as convenience stores, then the doctrine provides him or her with the ability to do so without any intrusion (Fish). Furthermore, a theory, which may seem impulsive but offers significant academic contribution based on its assumed historical effect cannot be under restriction based on its content. Another illustration involves the theory of evolution, which even though perceived as exaggerated by several academicians, could not be restricted based on content.

Still based on content, Fish alleges that a study is academic based on its accessibility to serious analysis but not based on the subject matter it provides. In support of this, the author uses the subject of astrology in order to illustrate the susceptibility of a study to academic analysis as an important factor. Indeed, Fish states that, “The distinction I am making-between studying astrology and proselytizing for it-is crucial and can be generalized” (Fish 1). Based on this assertion, the author alleges that it is possible to draw a line amid proper and inappropriate application of academic freedom. Undeniably, enacting a line for academic freedom involves severing the line between the dissemination of an idea and recruitment of students. In addition, the only point at which Barrett’s academic freedom should be under restriction is when he attempts to convert students into following the political thought that his theory may imply. Furthermore, it is important for a teacher, regarding an issue such as Iraq War, to set personal convictions aside in order to enable academic research.

In conclusion, Fish’s definition of academic freedom is far more convincing in comparison to others provided within the article. By focusing on recruitment rather than content, the delineation provided by the author offers a factual and convincing understanding of what entails academic freedom. For instance, it is appropriate for a teacher or a lecturer to study the Vietnam War regardless of the conflict it may pose in terms of opinions. However, when personal thoughts undergo application within the process of research, then academic freedom has surpassed its limits. In short, academic freedom does not entail the limitation or autonomy of academic content; rather it involves performing educational activities without interruption from external influences such as personal convictions.

Work Cited

Fish, Stanley. “Conspiracy Theories 101.” New York Times, n.d. Web. 3 Mar. 2014.

Vietnam War

Blind in Granada

            The gypsies were from a immigrant community and are included in the story to highlight the multiracial composition of Granada. In addition, they contribute to the stereotypical theme evident in the book since they only have a liking for Mexicans. Furthermore, their ruthlessness in dealing with perceived enemies serves to show the effects of the war. Hence, they portray the place as being dangerous. This creates an element of suspense in the story, which in turn makes it even more interesting.

Magan is attracted to the gypsies by their stylish mode of dressing. They wore pants shaped like bell-bottoms and disco shirts. They also had a fancy hairstyle in which they slipped back their hair (Cano, 1995). However, their wild nature and outgoing personality appeals to her even more. She also likes the stories they give about their culture. Likewise, she finds them to be flirty and that raises her self-esteem.

Somewhere Outside Duc Pho

            Stories are important to David because they offer him a distraction from the memories of war. In his view, the flashbacks about the loss of his comrades and the brutal fighting that they were engaged in can become stressful. Consequently, for him to heal, he needs to talk about the experiences. Such conversations provide him with closure. More so, at such times, he gets to relive the moments and becomes grateful that at least he survived the ordeal.

Jesse Pena’s disappearance is significant because it shows how the war could have a toll on someone. In particular, it highlights the harsh conditions that the soldiers had to endure during the war effort (Cano, 1995). Of interest to David is the fact that whereas Jesse disappeared to escape the cruelty of a war zone, he did not. Thus, he would like to show Luz that he tolerated the inhumane conditions. However, he also wants to make it clear that he is vulnerable to his past.

Rubber man and the Gardner’s Sons

The “Rubber Man” chapter specifically illustrates the unforgiving nature of war. In it, the reader is exposed to different episodes in which innocent civilians are killed (Cano, 1995). It portrays the controversial yet practical occurrence of collateral damage. Therefore, casualties are depicted as an integral part of battles. Unfortunately, most of the soldiers who commit the murders are not remorseful.

This chapter reveals that Wayne, David and Danny are fearless as well. They happen to do things courageously. They also rely on one another for both physical and emotional support. Naturally, this can be attributed to their close contact whenever they are conducting patrols. Thus, they develop a bond that keeps them going through the tough times of the conflict.

 

Reference

Cano, Daniel. (1995). Shifting loyalties. Houston, TX: Arte Público Press.

 

Shifting Loyalties

Question One

In the book, Daniel Cano shows loyalty to be a virtue that citizens should have, especially with regard to their country and government. The attitude of different characters towards the draft shows this. For instance, Victor Medrano’s father is deeply ashamed of the fact that he fled to Mexico to avoid being drafted into the Second World War. He feels that his actions amounted to cowardice and even hides the truth from his son for years. Compounding this issue is the fact that he believes two of his sons died in Vietnam as punishment for his cowardice (Cano, 1995). This perception implies that citizens should be loyal to their governments and serve them to a certain extent.

The story that Victor Medrano learns from his father also implies that loyalty has its limits. Even though he feels it was a cowardly act, the decision that Medrano’s father made to flee the draft shows that he felt that his country was asking too much of him. This is confirmed by the death of two of his sons in Vietnam. Even though citizens are expected to be loyal to their countries, there are certain situations when people can decide to reject their country’s calls.

Question Two

In Planting the seeds, the author draws comparisons between being in a baseball team and serving in the army. The story follows David Almas’ as he plays in the Little League and learns different lessons from his father. The emphasis on Almas’ role in the Little League baseball team serves as a way of showing that everybody has a role that they should play within their community. In some ways, David’s membership in the team is supposed to prepare him for a future where he will play a critical role in society. His father emphasizes this by constantly reminding David that “the important thing is that you learn to be a man”, sometimes in contradiction of what his wife says to David (Cano, 1995, p. 29).

Through the lessons that David is taught in the book, the author implies that manhood is about serving a specific, predetermined role within society. The book shows this through the repeated emphasis that David’s father places on his son’s preparation for his future roles using metaphors such as the one involving the dandelions and paratroopers (Cano, 1995). One of the roles that Almas’ father seems to emphasize is service in the army. His tales about paratroopers and the time that Almas’ uncle spent in the army shows a certain expectation that he has of Almas to serve his country as a soldier once he becomes a man. To this end, Almas’ father seems to be teaching him to be a man by having him play baseball, within a rigid training program.

 

References

Cano, D. (1995). Shifting Loyalties. Texas: Are Publico Press.

Organizational Behavior and Leadership

PART A

Power is defined as the possession of influence and authority by a person over other individuals. It is a tool which depending on the way it is applied, can result in either positive or negative results within an organization. There are mainly five bases of power that apply to organizations across the world. These are referent, expert, reward, legitimate, and coercive power (Hiriyappa, 2009). Some of these sources of power apply in the given scenario.

Referent power comes from interpersonal relations that an individual cultivates with other individuals within the organization. Individuals have this form of power when other people like and respect them. It is a result of charisma since the charismatic individual influences other people through respect, trust, and admiration for the person (Hiriyappa, 2009). The power is also derived from individual relations that an individual has with senior persons in the organization’s hierarchy. Referent power is demonstrated by employee 3 who is very charismatic, positive, well liked, and people are naturally drawn to the employee’s personality. The employee is chosen as a leader because of admiration from colleagues and enthusiasm.

There is legitimate power, which is also referred to as positional power and arises from the position one has in the organization’s hierarchy (Moorhead & Griffin, 2013). It is legitimately earned by the person. For instance, the CEO of an organization is said to have legitimate power as he is appointed by others who see him or her as a leader.

Expert power derives from having expertise and knowledge in a certain field. Such individuals are highly respected by organizations because of their skills in solving problems. Those who have this form of power execute crucial roles and are thus, considered indispensable. The ideas, decisions, and opinions of individuals with this power are valued by others in the organization. Having this power is usually a step to other bases of power including legitimate power. This power is demonstrated by employee 2. The employee is the only Certified Public Accountant and the only one who can prepare the company’s financial statements. This being the case, the employee has been allowed to work for four days a week.

Coercive power derives from an individual’s capacity to influence other people through punishments, threats, or sanctions. For instance, a junior worker may work late in order to beat a deadline and avoid certain disciplinary actions from his or her boss (Moorhead & Griffin, 2013). It refers, therefore, to the ability of an individual to fire, reprimand, or to punish another employee. This power helps in controlling employees’ behavior by making sure that they stick to norms and policies of the organization.

Reward power, on the other hand, is derived from a person’s ability to influence the allotment of incentives in an organization. The incentive may include positive appraisals, promotions, bonuses, and salary increments. Within organizations, people with this power influence other employees’ actions (Moorhead & Griffin, 2013). The power highly motivates employees if used well. However, if used through preference and favoritism, it can highly diminish the output of employees since it demoralizes them. Employee 1 demonstrates reward power as the company rewards large bonuses to employees who work hard. The employee works late and works on the weekends.

PART B

The relationship between power and dependency is well explained by the dependency theory. Power is the ability of making others do things that they would not do in normal circumstances. Power does not involve patronizing an individual, but how two individuals relate. It is important to specify over whom an individual has power. This is because power is not essentially transitive (Hiriyappa, 2009). The basis of power according to this theory is dependency. X depends on Y if X has needs and goals that Y is able to fulfill. For instance, a worker in an organization depends on the company for income. In the same way, the company must depend on employees for skills, brains, and labor.

Power-dependence relationship is well demonstrated in the scenario, by employee 1 and employee 2. The first employee has been working for the Corporation for 12 years in the marketing division. The company depends largely on the marketing skills of the employee in order to achieve its goals and objectives. Similarly, the individual depends on the company to earn the extra bonuses in order to cater for the vacation that cannot be afforded without such bonuses. For this reason, the employee works overtime (on weekends and late hours) to ensure that the goal is accomplished.

In addition, employee 2 demonstrates this relationship. The company is highly dependent on the employee especially because employee 2 is the only Certified Public Accountant in the organization, and the only one who is capable of preparing the financial statements of the company. Therefore, this relationship needs to be maintained for all parties to achieve their desired goals and needs. Failure to this results in conflicts among people in the organization.

References

Hiriyappa, B. (2009). Organizational behavior. New Delhi: New Age International.

Moorhead, G., & Griffin, R. W. (2013). Organizational behavior: managing people and organizations (4th ed., International student ed.). Boston, Mass.: Houghton Mifflin.

 

Reorganizing a Department

A new director in the health care organization decided to reorganize the department, the decision making processes on reorganization failed to incorporate the views of the nurses that are involved in the day to day running of the organization. As a result, the nurses felt indignant or bitter about the changes.

The conflict in the organization was a result of the new director, not including the nurses in the decision making processes (Sinofsky & Iansiti, 2010). Bringing nurses on board in the reorganization of the department greatly affect the health of the organization and the health of the employees. Human capital within an organization is one of the most important resources, and including nurses in the decision making processes makes it easy in the implementation phase. The nurses feel part and parcel of the changes within the department (Sinofsky & Iansiti, 2010). There is a sense of responsibility instilled by including nurses in the decision making processes, where the voices of the nurses are put on board.

Solution to challenges being experienced in the department is through participative decision making. It is worth noting that participative decision making processes build on trust, fostering different angles of looking at issues, spearheading advanced employee’s relations and influence on the type of decisions made within an organization (Sinofsky & Iansiti, 2010). Participative decision making processes within the organization make the nurses feel valued, trusted, grow, learn from one another, advance on responsibility, foster continuous and innovative improvement and in empowering nurses in doing their day to day duties (Sinofsky & Iansiti, 2010).

Decisions in organizations in the modern era are happening fast more than anybody can imagine. Organizations have to keep on adapting to changes as a way of enforcing a competitive edge. Involving nurses will be critical in making a difference in reorganizing the department.

Reference

Sinofsky, S. & Iansiti, M. (2010). One Strategy: Organization, Planning, and Decision Making. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

 

 

 

 

Personal Affiliations and Networking

Personal affiliations and networking are critical in nursing leadership. Leaders in nursing share the same challenges, learning from one another has been found significant in advancing the services offered by the health care facility. Nurse leaders have managed to address modern era challenges in the health care setting as leaders grow and share experiences. The world is currently interconnected through various technologies.

Informal and formal affiliations and networks in the health care facilities have been instrumental in propelling things to be done (Gobillot, 2006). Leaders who are connected have managed to advance their careers and at the same time save on costs and energy while running the health care facilities. Personal affiliations and networks have enabled leaders in nursing to acquire new information and build a competitive edge out of the new information (Center for Creative Leadership (CCL), 2007). Leaders in the same field share experiences, which are prominent in providing timely and accurate advice based on past experiences.

Personal affiliations and networking exist everywhere as long as leaders are open to new ideas and trends in the health care setting. Opportunities to network are common with professional events and meetings (Center for Creative Leadership (CCL), 2007). Survey indicate that most of the experienced leaders in nursing are sensitive in attending national meetings, which are influential in networking with other leaders in the same capacity and industry.

Experts in the modern era are also using social networking sites in advancing personal affiliations and networking. Some of the most influential sites are Listservs, LinkedIn and Facebook. Such social networking sites has been influential in broadening the networking and personal affiliations (Gobillot, 2006).

Personal affiliations and networking are connected in building a healthy work relationship. Networking is part of active behaviors where nurse leaders are advised to connect with professionals in the same field.

References

Center for Creative Leadership (CCL). (2007). Leadership Networking: Connect, Collaborate, Create. Misenheimer, North Carolina: Pfeiffer.

Gobillot, E. (2006). The Connected Leader: Creating Agile Organisations for People, Performance and Profit. London: Kogan Page.

 

 

 

 

Individual Research Paper and Model Business Activity Practical

Assessment Task A

• Information systems

1.1 The process of developing an information systems plan

Given the complexity of computer information systems and processes, it is evident that planning is vital for successful implementation and sustainability. The information system plan describes the elements contained in the system and the approach that will be used in system development. The basis of an enterprises strategic plan is the basis of the management information system strategic plan (Soderberg, 2012). The development of an organization’s information system plan is undertaken by the agency staff in collaboration with the executive management. The planning process incorporates the following.

• Review

This approach includes the review of the organizations’ corporate plan which assesses the organizational goals, mission, objectives and strategies so as to prioritize and set the business direction. The review process identifies the business processes that the enterprise engages in, focusing on the needs of the manager and all stakeholders.

• Assessment

The next step is the assessment of the immediate technological environment within which the agency operates including evaluation of the hardware requirements, software requirements and networks required for connectivity of the system. This step incorporates the needs analysis whereby user needs regarding the information system are reviewed. Typically, employees within the organization have an abstract idea regarding the end result of the system but have no idea on how the system functions. At this stage, software engineers recognize the competent requirements for which the system will be developed.

• Strategy Development

This phase entails the development of the organization information technology strategy. This is developed depending on the analysis of the prevailing environment of the organization and the business goals to be attained. The agency will identify its short and long term goals that are related to information management, sharing and information technology implementation to support the organization’s strategic plan (Dibbern, Fischer, Huber & Rudy, 2013). The strategy also highlights the organization’s technology needs and weaknesses for implementation. The strategy development process also incorporates scope analysis regarding the general requirements the system will achieve. Once the strategy for the system is ready, the system development process can commence.

1.2 The relationship between Business Process Reengineering (BPR) and information technology (IT)

Changes in the economic environment have led to the increase in BPR interest by many progressive firms across the globe. The Business Process Reengineering (BPR) approach is adopted by many organizations as a way of enhancing efficiency through waste reduction and minimizing costs (Agnew &Silverston, 2008). The close relationship between BPR and IT is attributed to the integration of more powerful technologies to the business environment and the decreasing costs of application in IT applications and their suitability for enhanced business capability.

1.2.1 Categories of relationship between BPR and information technology.

BPR and IT working together have the potential of creating flexible and team oriented, coordinated and communication centered work capability. IT involves the collection of automating and mechanizing tools and processes that restructure business processes by facilitating process design. Furthermore, IT capabilities have improved information access and coordination in enterprises, creating new process design alternatives for the business. Complete digitization of all work processes has enhanced the successful implementation of BPR by providing new digital platform that has enabled companies to operate efficiently end enabled the respond quickly to business opportunities and emergencies (Myszak, 2011). This has empowered employees and enhanced interaction with clients.

IT has been regarded as the key enabler of BPR. IT capabilities support business processes and organization’s business capabilities are mainly based on the IT capacity they offer. IT promises an ultimate impact for the business as the most powerful tool for facilitating coordination and lowering costs (Majeed, 2013). Moreover, the innovative capabilities of IT has enabled enterprises develop new, coordination-oriented structures, enabling the business manage its activities in ways that were not possible before.

1.2.2 Phases of BPR and IT application

1.2.2.1 Phase 1: IT as an enabler of BPR

There are various phases through which IT has initiated and sustained BPR

As a strategic action, BPR requires strategic action and clear understanding of the clients, the industry and the market to gain competitive advantage. Aligning the IT strategy with the business strategy facilitates accomplishment of the business mandate and vision. As an enabler, IT plays key roles in BPR initial phase through providing opportunities to utilize improved and newer technologies to develop the organization’s strategic vision and enhance business processes prior to design.

IT capabilities in tracking information and addressing organizational and informational barriers are resourceful in addressing the organizational strengths and weaknesses and realizing market opportunities in the BPR process. During the restructuring process, IT offers different approaches to manage the process. This allows the organization to benchmark against other similar firms and combines the experience and expertise of team members to adopt an ideal strategy (Khaninezhad & Behnam, 2013). Since BPR requires a flexible organizational design, the flexible IT structure facilitates cooperation among departments and nurture innovation and collaboration among teamwork’s

1.2.2.2 Phase 2: IT as BPR facilitator

IT facilitates the reengineering and design process through provision of process

Management tools that help in identification structuring and estimation of BPR activities and control.  Moreover, IT tools are also useful in the gathering and analysis of information regarding the structure and performance of processes since it is a key step in selecting the processes that require redesign.  Applications such as Computer Aided Design (CASE) are resourceful in the development of process models (Majeed, 2013).

Computing technologies facilitate processes facilitate a process-oriented approach towards system development which allows the sharing of databases via various functional units engaging in the same business process. Moreover telecommunication technologies such as groupware, WANs and LANs have enhanced collaboration among workgroups to enhance the business process outcome. The provision of data in digital formats offers a whole range of results since it enhances data manipulation and accuracy. Moreover, IT enables enterprises to build a database for tracking is stakeholders such as suppliers and customers at the same time facilitating information exchange to enhance international collaboration within the enterprise. For example, R. J Reynolds Tobacco Co. uses the EDI technology in collaboration with ecommerce tools and electronic work queues to reengineer its accounts payable function (Myszak, 2011). IT is also resourceful in the identification of alternative business of alternative business processes enabling organizations attain multiple objectives to redesign their processes.

1.2.2.3 Phase 3: IT as BPR implementer

IT facilitates the implementation of new processes through the application of analysis and project management tools. IT helps in the identification of the system structure and related tasks. Moreover, electronic communication tools overcome geographic communication barriers since they facilitate ongoing and real-time communication among project team members, supervisors and managers. In addition, IT evaluation tools are also important in evaluation of the return on investment of the BPR venture, this will enable the organization determine the viability of the venture. In addition, IT infrastructure of the organization can be customized to enhance cooperation among departments and cross functional teams during the BPR process.

Application software is useful in facilitating collaboration in reengineering process to foster ide generation, group outlining, brainstorming, project management and execution of different tasks. As other departments within the organization undergo reengineering, IT infrastructure is modified to meet the increasing needs of the business and enhance creativity.

The digital feedback loop facilitated by IT ensures that the reengineering process has an evaluation approach that defines success in terms of the timely execution of tasks, intermediate milestones attained and budget resources utilized. This enhances the efficiency and effectiveness in the execution of tasks. Successful reengineering requires that organizations first embark on the most vital business processes that give them competitive advantage, enhance customer service, sustain quality and reduce costs.

2.0 The basic planning and control methods and techniques.

2.1 Planning Methods and techniques

Planning refers to the process through which organizations set objectives and determine the approach to apply to accomplish them (Simkin, 2006). Whereas goals comprise the organization’s purpose in a wider perspective, objectives refer to goals expressed in measurable and measurable terms. The strategy the organization uses to accomplish its goals denotes the set of actions and deployment of resources to attain the set objectives.

• Planning tools and techniques

2.1.1.1 Environmental scanning

Assessing the environment in the form of environmental scanning to interpret and anticipate likely changes in the environment.  One of the key approaches in environment scanning is competitor intelligence and global scanning. Competitor intelligence entails gathering information about competitors and their approach to the business. On the other hand, global scanning entails the screening of a broader scope to assess the global forces that shape the business especially for firms in the global venture. This concept also draws information from the global perspective on business challenges and opportunities on the global level.

• Forecasting

This is another planning technique of assessing the environment that enterprises apply to create prediction regarding the business trends and outcomes. Forecasting facilitates managerial decision making and is highly viable especially within a stable business environment. Forecasting can either be qualitative or quantitative. Whereas quantitative forecasting applies mathematical models and approaches using a series of data to predict the business outcome, qualitative forecasting relies on expert opinion to predict the precise business outcome. Organizations apply the collaborative planning, forecasting and replenishment (CPFR) application as the standardized approach using the internet to facilitate data exchange (Barry, 2011).

2.1.1.3 Benchmarking

The approach entails searching for the most appropriate practices in the industry among competitors and non-competitors to enhance the business performance. By evaluating and implementing the practices, the firm will improve its output. The benchmarking process starts by forming a benchmark team, collecting internal and external data regarding the ideal work methods, conducting data analysis to outline the performance gaps that cause differences and preparation and implementation of an action plan to meet and exceed the standards (Trickett, 2006).

2.1.1.4 Allocation of resources

2.1.1.4.1 Budgeting

A budget for the business refers to the numerical plan it applies in resources management such as resources used to improve space, time and other material resources. Budgeting is applied across all organizations and can either be variable or fixed budget. An ideal budgeting approach should be flexible, goal-driven and coordinated throughout the enterprise. Budgeting and planning software is helpful in drafting budgets as key resources allocation tools. The profitability of the enterprise is drawn from smart management but not budgeting.

2.1.2.4.2 Scheduling

Another method of allocating resources is through scheduling. Schedules incorporate plans organizations apply in resources allocation detailing the tasks to be accomplished, the order of execution, responsibility and time limits for completion. Scheduling facilitate the coordination of various activities in the enterprise.

2.1.2.4.3 Charting

Gantt charts and load charts are the mainly applied charting methods to allocate resources during the planning process. Gantt charts represent tasks to be accomplished against time by showing the expected and actual progress of project tasks (Barry, 2011). Load charts on the other hand are modified Gantt charts indicating entire departments and resources allocation allowing managers to plan and control capacity utilization within the enterprises.

2.1.2.4.2 Analysis

The resource allocation approach entails the process of program evaluation and review techniques within the enterprise. Flow charts diagrams are the most common evaluation tools used to depict the sequence tasks to be completed in the project alongside the projected costs. Evaluation and review assesses events, activities, slack time and the critical path for each activity

2.1.3 Contemporary Planning techniques

2.1.3.1 Project Management

Project management refers to the task of getting activities done on time within the allocated budgetary resourced in accordance to the specifications. The project management approach incorporates the definition of goal to identify the required activities, materials and labor and determining the sequence for completion of tasks (Simkin, 2006).

2.1.3.2 Scenario Planning

A scenario contains a consistent view of an expected outcome. As a result, the process of scenario planning entails making projects to reduce future business uncertainties. This is achieved by playing out the potential business contexts under different circumstances

2.1.3.3 Contingency planning

This entails the development of scenarios that enable managers to establish in advance the outcome of their actions should the considered event occur.

2.2 Controlling

Controlling refers to the process of determining performance and actions to attain the desired outcome (Farrell, 2005). The approach has a positive role in the process management process to ensure the business is on the right track. The controlling process entails for major steps that include;

• Establishment of objectives and standards

The output standards measure the performance results of the enterprise on the basis of quality, time, and quantity and cost whereas input standards measure efforts on the basis of the amount of work used to perform the task.

• Measuring the actual performance

The approach entails measuring the actual results against the output and input standards to ensure goals are accurate. For effective controls, a method of measurement is essential

• Comparison of results against standards and objectives

This is a control equation that organizations apply to establish the need for an action by comparing the differences between the desired performance and the actual performance. This can be achieved through historical, relative or engineering comparisons.

• Applying corrective actions as needed.

The approach entails taking the appropriate action when discrepancies arise between the desired and the actual outcome. At this level, management by exception is important to give priority attention in circumstances that show great need for action.

• Database Management Systems concepts

3.1. Database Management Systems

Database management systems (DBMS) refers to a collection of programs that enable the user to store, manipulate, modify and extract required information from a computer database. The types of DBMS range from small systems that run on personal computers to large systems that are run on mainframes (Andrew, Honglak, Ranganath & Rogers, 202011). Examples of DBMS include a computerized library system, automated teller machines, computerized inventory systems and flight reservation systems. From the technical outlook, the way DBMS organizes information internally can either be relational, network, hierarchical or flat. This organization affects the rate and flexibility of information retrieval. Requests for information from the database are referred to as queries which are submitted as styles questions.

An example of a query for the DBMs could be;

SELECT ALL WHERE NAME = “JOHN” AND AGE < 40

This query requests the records in the database whereby the Name field is JOHN and AGE of the field is less than 40. These set rules of formulating queries are referred to as the query language. Different DBMS support different languages although the structured query language SQL is the semi-standardized language applied (Armstrong, Nolan & Robinson, 2013).

3.1.1 Database Design

It is important that databases are designed in a way that there is maximum guarantee the needed record is easily reaches and that necessary relationships are provided so that the query generation rate is fast. In addition data types should be established and a standardized way of representing the concepts adopted. The database should also be rid of unnecessary data and data redundancy minimized so that data can be easily updated with minimal errors.

3.2 Relationship between data models, process models and object oriented models.

3.2.1 Data models

Data models refer to the description of the objects in an information system alongside the properties and relationships. Data models are typically real world objects such as products, customers, suppliers and orders. Within the DBMS approach, data models refer to the collection of concepts and rules that define data (O’Brien and Marakas, 2009). Data models are based on data, their relationship and constraints. The data model provides details regarding the data to be stored and its primary use to derive the software code for the application.

Data models play a key role in facilitating communication between the business owner and the enterprise regarding the computer system requirements and technical aspects defining the requirements. Data models are critical in determining structure of the data and in the context of programming languages; they are referred as the data structures.  The main function of data models is to back up the system development process by providing a method for data formats and definition (Khaninezhad & Behnam, 2013). When the same data structures are applies in the store and access of data, it is possible for different applications to share resources. However, since systems may be difficult to build and develop, constraining the business rather than providing support. Data models should hence be carefully developed and implemented using the appropriate interface.

3.3.2 Process Models

Process models refer to processes of similar nature that have been grouped together in a model. This is because the process model is a type level and is widely used in the application development process. A process model is a representation of how the process itself will appear and processes are determined during the system development process. The goals of the process model can either be descriptive, prescriptive or explanatory. Descriptive process models track the activities during processes to take the viewpoint of the external observer to determine the functioning of the system and suggest improvements (Martens & Provost, 2012). On the contrary, prescriptive process models define the ideal processes and how they ought to execute. This is attained through the setting of rules, guidelines and behavior patterns that lead to the desired process outcome.

Explanatory process models on the other hand offer explanation regarding the rationale of processes. This is attained through exploring and evaluating the likely outcomes on the course of action to establish an explicit connection between the processes and the needs the model should fulfill. Process models play a key role in describing the key concepts describing the style, development processes. Based on an operational viewpoint, process modeling offers guidelines to engineers and application developers on the right approach to follow (Agnew & Silverston, 2008). On the other hand, process models address the process attributes of the enterprise architecture particularly the enterprise business architecture.

The connection of the business processes in the enterprise system and the connection with other systems, data, strategies and organizational structure, process models enhance system capabilities by facilitating the analysis and planning phase. An example of a real-world application of process modeling is in the corporate mergers and acquisitions which facilitate the understanding of the organizational processes in detail to allow the management identify the redundancies hence a more efficient merger.  Process modeling is a key aspect of business process engineering and the continuous improvement process in organizations.

3.3 Object oriented data models

The object oriented data model refers to a model that applies objects with attributes as the code foundation. Once an aspect in the system is established, it is identified as an object and consequently, the object methods and attributes are categorized together under that identifier. For object oriented models, classes are applied to group the object within the models and hence subclasses can adopt the attributes and methods in the superclass (Martens & Provost, 2012) One of the key attribute of object oriented models is the object and object identifiers that model real world uniformity into models as objects associated with unique identifiers used to query the database.

Attributes and methods define the state of each object which is denoted by the set values whereas behavior of the model denotes the set methods operating in the state of the object. On the other hand, a class denotes the grouping of the entire objects with similar set of attributes and methods. An object is only affiliated to one class as an instance of relationship in that class (Vieira, 2013). Moreover, object oriented models are also characterized any class hierarchy and inheritance. Models derive new subclasses from the existing class also referred as the superclass. The superclass adopts the entire methods and attributes of the current class and may contain additional methods and attributes.

Assessment Task B

4.0 IT Manager Co Ltd case study scenarios

This section presents the Rich picture, Sub-systems diagrams, data flow diagram (DFD) and entity relationship diagram (ERD) suitable for the ITmanager.co.uk. Ltd alongside a personal critical analysis of the data modeling processes carried out in each section

 

4. 1 Rich Picture

This rich picture demonstrates the list of activities that are undertaken at the firm in order to provide IT support services to the clients. The company’s clients provide a request to ITmanager Co. seeking their IT consultancy services giving their system specification details. Clients want support services for their IT functions, want to implement planned system developments or seek to buy days from the firm within a year when IT support services will be offered.

IT consultants at the firm in collaboration with the company’s director and other personnel allocate days for IT support once an agreement with the client has been reached. The system implementation process then commences for the planned implementation. Support specialists at the firm are allocated tasks and the system development and support is undertaken.

  

ITmanager Co.Uk.Ltd system implementation process

2 The sub-system Diagram

As presented in the sub-system diagram, the IT support system of the firm is composed of various systems that are interrelated. These systems include; the customer, financial system, the application store, the order processing system and the Marketing information system. Although these subsystems are interrelated, they work together to accomplish the goal of the enterprise.

4. 3 Data Flow Diagram

The dataflow diagram shows a process oriented graphical representation of the whole system. It shows the flow of data between the external entities and the processes and also the data held by the system. The diagram presents the processes, the flow, data stores and the terminator.

4.4 Entity Relationship Diagram

The Entity Relationship diagram for ITmanager.co.uk.Ltd is a graphical representation of the entities and how they relate with each other. The ER diagram presents how data within the database of the company has been organized.

 

References

Agnew, P. and Silverston, L., (2008). The Data Model Resource Book: Universal Patterns

for data Modeling. NewYork:  John Wiley & Sons

Andrew, Y., Honglak, L., Ranganath, R and Roger, G. (2011.) Unsupervised Learning of

Hierarchical Representations with Convolutional Deep Belief Networks.

Communications of the ACM, 54 (10), 95-103.

Armstrong, G., Nolan, C. and Robinson, T., (2013). Managing Equivalent Representations of

Design and Analysis Models. Computer-Aided Design & Application. 11 (2), 193-

205. DOI: 10.1080/16864360.2014.846091

Barry, I., (2011). Planning and controlling business succession planning using quality

function deployment. Total Quality Management & Business Excellence, 20 (4),

363-379.

Dibbern, J., Fischer, T.,  Huber, T. and Rudy, H., (2013). A Process Model of

Complementarity and Substitution of Contractual and Relational Governance in IS

Outsourcing. Journal of Management Information Systems, 30 (3), 81-114. DOI:

10.2753/MIS0742-1222300304.

Farrell, T., (2005). Planning must be less controlling. Planning, 13 (1), 12-21

Khaninezhad, M. and Behnam, J. (2013). Prior model identification during subsurface flow

data integration with adaptive sparse representation techniques. Computational

Geosciences. 18 (1), pp. 3-16. DOI: 10.1007/s10596-013-9378-7.

Majeed, A., (2013). Application of Business Process Through Talent Management: An

Empirical Study. Journal of Marketing & Management, 4 (2), 46-68.

Martens, D. and Provost, F., (2012). Explaining data-driven document classifications.  MIS

Quarterly, 37 (2), 73-76

Myszak, J., (2011). Business Process Reengineering (BPR): Future or Past of The Business?

Theory & Studies for Rural Business & Infrastructure Development. 26 (2), 169-

176.

O’Brien, J. and  Marakas, G., (2009). Management Information Systems (9th Ed.). New

York, NY: McGraw-Hill/Irwin

Simkin, L., (2006). People and Processes in Marketing Planning: The Benefits of Controlling

Implementation. Journal of Marketing Management., 12 (5), 375-390

Soderberg, K., (2012). Minnesota clinics’ adoption, use and exchange of electronic health

information. Medical information Systems, 96 (9), 45-48

Trickett, J., (2006). Planning and controlling sales and production. Journal of Marketing. 38

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Quarterly, 723-748.

 

First Question (Chapter 1): Do you think current worldwide population growth and economic growth are sustainable? Why or why not?

The current economic and population growth are not sustainable. Sustainability depends on the willingness of the developed countries to reduce their resource consumption. Although the high population growth in less developed countries increases the impact on the environment and resources, the severity of the impact comes from the rate of resource consumption. If the developed countries can reduce their rate of resource consumption, the world would move towards equality in terms of consumption. The less developed countries would have access to more resources and improve their living standards. When living standards improve around the world, people  would be able to control population growth through family planning methods. Consequently, population growth would slow down, reducing negative impacts of increased population on the environment. However, the developed countries are not willing to reduce their consumption, which limits access for less developed nations. Poverty levels lead to lack of family planning knowledge, which translates to increased birth rates. The birth rates increase the population that encroaches on the environment.

As technological innovations continue, people’s ability for mass production increase, which translates to economic development. The quest to achieve increased economic growth has shadowed the need to use the technological innovations to create new ways to control environmental pollution and degradation. Consequently, activities that are aimed at increasing economic development have resulted in pollution of the environment. Pollution has reduced the ability of the environment to sustain the current population because it increases disasters such as drought. The disasters have destroyed the ecosystem and has led to extinction of various species. The reduction of species from the ecosystem means that the future generations will not benefit from them. Therefore, the current economic development and population growth have reduced the ability of future generations to sustain their needs.

(Word Count: 293)

Second Question (chapter 2): How forest destruction relates to declining biological diversity?

Biodiversity is the variety of organisms, their variability and the complex habitats within which they live. Therefore, it refers to the number, types and variations of species living on the earth’s surface. Forest destruction is related to the reduction of biological diversity in a variety of ways. First, about half of all organism species live within the tropical rainforests around the world. Each of the tropical forests in various locations on the globe harbor unique species of organisms. The destruction of these forests, therefore, means that some animals living there are killed by humans during deforestation. Secondly, as forests are cleared, the natural habitats of many organisms are destroyed, exposing them to predators and other harsh elements of nature. Such exposure reduces their number within the destroyed habitat.

The destruction of forests reduces earth’s vegetation cover, which limits the atmospheric potential to lose carbon dioxide. Consequently, excess carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere, increasing the earth’s temperatures. The increased temperature cause melting of ice in regions far away from the destroyed forests. The melting glaciers flow into oceans and rivers and cause flooding in low lying lands. The organisms living in these lands get submerged in the floods and perish. Therefore, the effects of forest destruction lead to the reduction of biodiversity within the destroyed forests and in other regions. In addition, forested regions are the most productive areas and provide food to human populations. The destruction of forests reduces the area’s productivity and may lead to famine and droughts in the long run. Human deaths through droughts and famine also reduces biodiversity.

(Word Count: 263)

Human Rights Principles in Developing Countries

Introduction

The subject of human rights implementation has remained a challenge to many countries around the world. Depending on the countries under consideration, any of the following could be the obstacle limiting the implementation of human rights: geography, anthropology, demographics, ineffectiveness of human rights organizations and state sovereignty. In addition,  lack of a universal definition of human rights has been an obstacle towards implementing human rights. This  paper will evaluate  the difficulties related to implementing human rights in developing countries.

Geography

The developing countries are widely distributed in the world, but the majority are in Africa. The governments in these developing countries fail to prioritize human rights because the available resources are dedicated to eradicating poverty and increasing development. As  such, the work of ensuring human rights is left to activists who are sponsored by organizations from the developed countries (Arat 23). Since the developing countries have poor infrastructure, accessing those places highly rated for human rights violation becomes a challenge. Since many human rights abuses happen in Africa, it is difficult to enforce human rights observation since the entire continent is similar in characteristics. Countries in Africa tend to have little priority for human rights. Consequently, when human rights abuses occur in one country, the neighboring country cannot stand to correct the other.

Anthropology

Anthropology refers to the study of humans present and past lives, which include culture, sexuality, race and gender. The aspects and activities covered in anthropology affect human rights in a variety of ways. In developing countries, communities have held fast to their traditional cultures that give them identity. Some practices within these cultures have been classified by the international community as human rights abuses (Goodale 47). Some cultural practices in the developing countries that are considered human rights violations form the basis upon which cultures are formed. Challenging these practices become impossible since such an action would be interpreted as undermining the foundations of these communities. For instance, female genital mutilation has been classified as a human rights violation. In the communities that observe this practice, women who fail to go through this process are scorned and disrespected. Human rights activists argue that women are forced  to undergo female genital mutilation. However, even in countries where the law prohibits these practices, the cultural shame that accompanies those who fail to go through the practice is so traumatizing that women voluntarily accepts to participate in the right of passage. Female genital mutilation is one of the cultural practices that indicate the difficulty of attempting to implement human right principles in developing countries. The governments in the developing countries are made up of people who come from communities that practice cultural rituals classified as human rights violations. Therefore, they uphold the beliefs and customs of their cultures to the extent that they are incapable of implementing human rights principles that seem to violate cultural norms.

Another anthropological aspect that hinders implementation of human rights principles is sexuality. In many developing countries, women are treated differently from men. Almost all societies in the world are patriarch and acknowledges men as the heads of homesteads. In developing countries, the roles played by men and women are clearly defined. These roles define power relations between the two genders and determine how things are done in the society. The gender imbalance created by these power relations permeates all levels of society, including leadership. The majority of the lawmakers in the developing countries are men. When men are lawmakers in societies that discriminate against women, the laws cannot support human rights principles that challenge the societal perception of sexuality. The absence of laws that support the implementation of  human rights principles in developing countries has made it difficult to enforce conformity to the rights.

Race has played an enormous role in the difficulties facing human rights principles’ implementation in developing countries. In developing countries, there exist people of different races. The coexistence of various races is exemplified in Latin American countries and parts of Africa. People of diverse originalities have varied beliefs about their place in society. Some believe that they are superior than others. Such perceptions encourage discrimination based on race.  The implementation of human rights principles can only be achieved through reconciliation of the races, which has been  an exhausting task. The leadership of these countries is also shaped by racial segregation, which makes it impossible to tackle racism without interfering with the leadership. he human rights violations witnessed in Sudan are based on racism between the black Africans and the Africans of  Middle East origin. The solution to such problems is achievable through the country’s leadership by implementing human rights principles and enforcing them. Since the government is involved in violating the rights, it becomes impossible to implement them.

Demographics

Several demographic characteristics have contributed to the difficulties of human rights implementation in developing countries. One of these characteristics is low education levels. A population with high levels of education is enlightened and understands  its human rights. On the other hand, when the population is uneducated, its members are not aware of their rights and may not realize when the rights are violated. In many developing countries, the population is uneducated with limited education backgrounds. The low levels of education mean that these people cannot secure employment in high paying jobs to support their livelihood. Consequently, they focus on activities that only ensure their survival. Their highest priority is to secure employment and improve their living standards. Therefore, they do not contemplate human rights and activities that violate their rights. Education empowers people to challenge the rulers and other organizations that perpetuate human rights abuses. When a population lacks this empowerment,  the government and other institutions can violate people’s rights without anyone challenging them. Consequently, there is no one to advocate for the implementation of human rights principles.

The high rates of population growth in developing countries have led to competition for resources. This competition leads to depletion of natural resources and degradation of the environment to the extent that it cannot support the population. Consequently, conflicts arise as people grapple with the problem of limited resources. These conflicts escalate, leading to violent fights that claim the lives of children and women in the population. Implementing human rights principles in such environments is almost impossible because sometimes the countries lack a sense of direction and leadership.

Ethnic diversity in the developing countries promotes ethnic identities instead of national identities. The elected leaders in these countries come from the ethnic groups with the highest number of people. The government is, therefore, not a representative of the entire population. To make matters worse, the government is reluctant to include the minorities who lost during the elections. The minorities feel left out in the process of nation building.  Such governments that fail to promote national identities become corrupt since there is no powerful opposition to counter their activities. They make decisions that favor their ethnic communities at the expense of the minorities. Consequently, the minorities’ basic rights are violated. When the communities decide to fight for their rights, the government use the excessive force of police and military to silence those advocating for the rights. Implementing the principles of human rights in such countries is almost impossible. The impossibility arises from the fact that the governments are against the idea and those whose rights have been violated are too afraid to support the implementation.

When the governments in developing countries use physical force to silence those fighting for human rights, the international communities, through non-governmental organizations support the activists. Consequently, the governments declare that the fight for human rights is a national security issue sponsored by foreign governments to disrupt the countries’ stability. Such claims by the governments coupled with calls for patriotism excite the populations to rise and defend the countries against external aggression by foreign countries. Consequently, the implementation of human rights principles loses legitimacy in the eyes of the citizens and becomes difficult to implement.

Ineffectiveness of International Human Rights Organizations

The ineffectiveness and deficiency of international organizations has made implementation of human rights principles in the developing countries difficult (Uvin 102). The resources required to implement and monitor human rights activities are enormous. The available resources are not enough to serve all the  countries in the developing world, which require human rights principles’ implementation. Consequently, the scarcity of resources leads to the deficiency of international human rights organizations in developing countries.

The effectiveness of these organizations depends of their legitimacy in the eyes of the public. When the public perceives them to be fair and genuine in fighting for human rights, the organizations gain support. On the other hand, the organizations may lose their legitimacy if the public does not approve of their work. Many international human rights organizations in developing countries have received negative publicity and their legitimacy questioned. The characteristics of human rights organizations are viewed from the perspective of their donors (Hunt 123). Donors of various organizations are governments from developed countries. Governments in developing countries have been skeptical about the intentions of these organizations and view them as tools used by western countries to propagate neocolonialism and introduce regime change. These governments convince the public that the organizations are meant to disrupt the running of the government through instructions from foreign countries. When this happens, the human rights organizations lose their legitimacy and fail to implement human rights principles in developing countries.

In some countries, the local members of these organizations lack integrity and participate in actions that lead to loss of trust from the public. During demonstrations against human rights abuses, the members of the human rights organizations should behave with decorum and in a responsible manner. They should also use a decent language when communicating their displeasures. Good behavior from the members can earn the support of the public and legitimize the organizations’ actions. However, this is not usually the case. There are some human rights organizations whose members do not have integrity, which translates to a loss of public trust and ineffectiveness.

Although human rights organizations can take part in economic, social and political developments within the countries they operate, they should not be partisan to the actual political process (Donnelly 90). They should avoid taking sides in elections and issues relating to the politics of the countries. Some international organizations are used by the governments of various countries to protest policies in developing countries that do not conform to their wishes. When that happens, even if the concerns are genuine, the motives behind the protest can limit the effectiveness of international human rights organizations operating in developing countries. A good example relates to the anti-homosexuality law passed in Uganda. Uganda and the United States have disagreed publicly on the issue where the United States has threatened to withdraw aid from Uganda. An international organization that is supported by the United States government cannot gain legitimacy in Uganda. It will be viewed to perpetuate the United States’ government foreign policy. Such an organization face opposition from the government and the public.

State Sovereignty

Every country, including the developing ones insists on being sovereign in dealing with internal matters. They require non-interference by other nations on matters relating to internal governance of their countries. However, in cases where human rights have been violated, it becomes difficult to draw the line on where sovereignty should reach and where human rights organizations should intervene (Meijer 24). Nations in developing countries, especially those that had been colonized feel intimidated by the presence of international human rights organizations and treat them like an extension of the countries from which they come. Developing countries feel that the international human rights organizations are organs created by other developed countries to influence them (Cox and Shawki 75). Governments in developing countries rally their populations against the human rights organizations by creating a perception that the organizations exist to undermine the countries’ sovereignty. When this happens, the human rights organizations cannot find support in the developing countries, which leads to their failure to implement human rights principles.

Absence of a Universal Definition of Human Rights

Every society and country in the world defines human rights differently. The various definitions of human rights come from the values held by different societies and cultures (Coicaud, Doyle and Marie 49). The values held by one society may not be relevant to others, which makes it difficult to have a universal view of human rights. Over the years, anthropologists have refrained from taking part in discussions related to the creation of human rights charters. Their decision to keep off the subject of human rights has been influenced by their understanding of how communities and cultures are diverse. The diversity creates different meanings where no one can decide which meaning is right or better than the other (Coicaud, Doyle and Marie 132). A clear example of how various communities differ in the values they place on activities include the issue of homosexuality and polygamy. Homosexuals are protected by the law as having rights in the United States.  On the other hand, countries in Africa and parts of Eastern Europe treat homosexuality as an abomination and have created laws that punish homosexuals. In many western countries, they treat polygamy with contempt while societies in Africa and other developing countries value polygamy. In such situations, it becomes impossible to implement human rights principles in the developing countries that are deemed to originate from developed countries’ values. The success of international organizations in implementing human rights principles depends on their acceptance that they must consider the definition of human rights from individual developing countries’ perspective. When the definition attempts to consider each country’s values, it becomes impossible to have a single universal definition since the world has numerous diverse cultures. The absence of a common definition of human rights is among the biggest obstacle that hinder international human rights organizations from implementing human rights principles in developing countries.

Conclusion

Human rights principles’ implementation in the developing countries has been marred with challenges and difficulties. The challenges are diverse and include geography, anthropology, demographics, ineffectiveness of human rights organizations, state sovereignty and absence of a universal definition of human rights. Each of these factors has had a different impact on the operations of human rights organizations in developing countries. Some of the obstacles are created by governance structures in the developing countries while others are cultural and deep rooted in the traditions of various societies. Ideological differences and lack of trust between developed and developing countries has created some of the obstacles. For instance, sovereignty and ineffectiveness of international human rights organizations have been influenced by the relationship between developed and developing countries. The absence of a single definition of human rights and anthropology is an obstacle that has been created by culture and traditions of communities in the developing countries.

Works Cited

Arat, Zehra. Democracy and Human Rights in Developing Countries. Bloomington: iUniverse, 2003. Print.

Coicaud, James., Doyle, Williams., & Marie, Andrew. The Globalization of Human Rights. Tokyo: United Nations University Press, 2003. Print.

Cox, Michaelene., & Shawki, Noha. Negotiating Sovereignty and Human Rights: Actors and Issues in Contemporary Human Rights Politics. New York, NY: Ashgate Publishing, 2009. Print.

Donnelly, Jack. Universal Human Rights in Theory and Practice. New York, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003. Print.

Goodale, Mark. Surrendering to Utopia: An Anthropology of Human Rights. California: Stanford University Press, 2009. Print.

Hunt, Lynn. Inventing Human Rights: A History. New Jersey, NJ: Norton & Company, 2007. Print.

Meijer, Martha. Dealing with human rights: Asian and Western views on the value of human rights. Illinois: Greber Publishers, 2001. Print.

Uvin, P. Human rights and development. Sterling: Kumarian Press, 2004. Print.

Pharmacology

Pain is one of the vital communications tools in the human body. Majority of human beings do not like pain, and tend to avoid situations or objects that may cause pain. In this context, a person walking into a dark room accidently kicks a metal chair; it is unfortunate that the individual was bare footed at the time of the incident. The person will felt pain as a result of the impact. Pain communicates to the rest of the body informing individuals that something is wrong and necessitates immediate attention.

No matter the source of pain, pain is an emotional experience and unpleasant sensory. There are different causes of pain and individuals respond to pain differently. The feeling of pain also varies with individuals, and at times could be incapacitating. Pain is categorised in a number of ways (APS, 2009 p. 54). Common categories identify with acute pain, chronic pain, pain caused by damages of tissues, pain caused by damages of nerves, central pain syndrome, diabetic peripheral neuropathic pain, complex regional pain syndrome, trigeminal neuralgia and shingles and postherpetic neuralgia.

In this case, an individual hurting his/her leg after knocking down a metal chair in a dark room will experience acute pain. Acute pain is different from chronic pain. Acute pain is characterised with a sudden feeling of pain and lasts for a short duration (Macintyre & Schug, 2007 p. 300). Acute pain is experienced after damages in muscles, bones and organs. The onset of the acute pain is characterised with emotional distress and anxiety (Sinatra et al., 2009 p. 288).

Acute pain is debilitating and in most cases affect or can be affected by the state of mind of the individual. There are cases when the psychological distress has amplified acute pain. In the past one decade, assessment and management of pain have diversified with advancement in the medical technology. Health care practitioners rely on interviewing techniques, knowledge and skills in physical assessment in defining the nature of pain (Bbp, 2010 p. 2).

Pain in the human body has pushed patients to seek medical care, there are clinical practice guidelines and pain related position statements used in the assessment and management of pain. Studies conducted on pain management indicate that pain is inadequately and inconsistently addressed (Pasero & McCaffery, 2010 p. 507). It is argued that pain is a personal experience, and subjective experience only explained by the persons feeling the pain (Macintyre & Schug, 2007 p. 239). Acceptance and recognition of pain is the first step of assessing and managing pain. Most of the health care professionals manage pain in human beings on the basis of self report on the part of the patients. Health care professionals have challenges managing pain in people unable to express themselves verbally (Pasero & McCaffery, 2010 p. 655).

In this context, the metal chair acts as the stimuli that provoked pain to the individual after the individual accidentally kicked it while bare footed in the dark room. There are a number of pains relieving medications such as paracetamols that a person can take in managing mild and acute pain (APS, 2009 p. 104). Prolonged acute pain may activate autonomic nervous systems resulting to tachycardia, hypertension, shallow respiration, diaphoresis, facial grimacing, restlessness, pallor, guarding behaviours and pupil dilation (Sinatra et al., 2009 p. 409).

Pain is normal in human beings since it alerts the body that something is wrong somewhere and needs immediate attention. In this case, the person could not see in the dark room. Accidentally kicking the metal chair with bare feet triggering acute pain and signalling to the individual that something was wrong. The individual had to attend to the bare foot that was hurt by the metal chair. People respond differently to pain. Pain causes emotional, physical and psychological distress.

List of References

APS (2009). Principles of Analgesic Use in the Treatment of Acute Pain and Cancer Pain. 6th ed. Glenview, Illinois: American Pain Society (APS). 21-111.

Bbp (2010). Pain Management Pocketcard Set. Hermosa: Borm Bruckmeier Publishing LLC. 1-2.

Macintyre, P. & Schug, S (2007). Acute Pain Management. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Saunders. 112-302.

Pasero, C. & McCaffery, M (2010). Pain Assessment and Pharmacologic Management. Maryland Heights, Missouri: Mosby. 344-704.

Sinatra, R., Leon-Cassasola, O., Viscusi, E., & Ginsberg, B (2009). Acute Pain Management. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. 66-645.