Relevancy of the Japanese Model of Human Resource Management in the Contemporary Business Environment

By late 1980s, most Japanese firms had gained competitive advantages over their European and American counterparts in related industries (Price 2011). In fact, some observers predicted that the Japanese economy will overtake the US economy as the world’s leading economy by the 21^st century. Success in Japanese economy was attributed to its distinct human resource management style also called the Japanese model of management (Price 2011). However, by 1990s, everything changed after the Japanese economy began declining. Consequently, perception about Japanese HRM changed. Since 1990s, many Japanese management practices have been criticized for being unsuitable and outdated for contemporary business.

However, the tendency to perceive Japanese HRM practices as inapplicable in modern business overlooks important changes which have taken place in the Japanese business environment over the last 20 years. In fact, Japanese organizations have responded to the challenging economic circumstances by making significant changes to various existing management practices which are also relevant to the contemporary business (Price 2011). That is, although some of the Japanese management practices might be inapplicable in the modern business, others are up-to-date thus applicable in the contemporary economy. This paper provides such assessment.

HRM Systems in Context

The Japanese model of management originated from the institutional settlements which were established in the country after the World War II (Debroux 2003). In turn, the Japanese business landscape led to various features in the management. Most Japanese management practices emphasized collective over individualist principles and long-term over short-term goals.

The Japanese Business Landscape

Mutual shareholding; Japanese firms have cross shareholding with the firms and banks within the same keirestu (group of firms) and selected suppliers (Debroux 2003). Such management style supported stable growth by preventing interference by outside shareholders. It also assists in diversification or risk sharing. This is one of the effective mechanisms of mutual controls among member firms which are also common among modern firms.

A long-Term Approach

The Japanese model of management emphasizes on the long-term approach as opposed to short-term. According to Baker and Powell (2005), this approach enables firms to improve productivity and expand market share while favoring long-term over short-term gain. Such approach is applicable both to Japanese and contemporary business. Most modern firms prefer short-term gains simply because its (short-term) funds are less expensive than long-term funds. However, from Baker and Powell’s (2005) point of view, other modern firms use long-term funds which assist firms to avoid the increase in short-term interest rates by locking their cost of funds. Whenever firms lock in more long-term funds, such firms protect themselves from risks resulting from credit shutoff either due to the firm’s bad financial conditions or due to general economic condition. In other words, both Japanese and modern firms use the long-term approach because it prevents firms from potential risks.

Japanese model of management requires managers to consider members of keiretsu, suppliers, and employees’ interests, rather than those of shareholders. Such practice provides the context of Japanese firms’ management practices including the three pillars of Japanese HRM; Lifetime employment or the shushin koyo, seniority wages (nenko joretsu), and enterprise unionism (kigyo kumiai) (Baker & Powell 2005).  For instance, most Japanese companies recruited their employees (mostly men) only from Japanese universities because they expected that such employees will work for those firms for their (workers) entire career. Such approach is not relevant to today’s economy. This is because firms are subject to labor costs increase as employees grow old and that such employees are not able to adjust to the developing modern technology.

Under the current challenges brought by changing technology, firms cannot survive by recruiting only one gender (male) or only graduates. Although firms still prefer conducting mass recruitment from higher learning institutions, such people are mostly trained as non-regular and mid-career workers. As opposed to Japanese firms, most firms in the modern business are seeking mid-career and non-regular workers from both gender those who have readymade abilities and skills to enable the firms minimize training costs and counter challenges resulting from the rapidly changing technology (Baker & Powell 2005). Therefore, lifetime employment approach is not applicable to modern business.

Seniority wages, promotion, and reward practices; such practices in Japanese firms were tied to lifetime employment program (Baker & Powell 2005). The practice is irrelevant in the contemporary business because of the ever increasing competition and domestic market. This explains why most firms in modern business prefer appointing part-time or non-regular workers. According to Baker and Powell (2005), most employers have realized that, the seniority-based wage approach is unsuitable thereby making such approach irrelevant in modern business.

However, it is worthy noting that, large Japanese firms have also encountered challenges resulting from the increasing competition thus they are engaged in cost-cutting practices. Some observers argue that, the increasing competition in global and domestic market has made it challenging for Japanese to sustain the seniority-based wages (Baker & Powell 2005). Nonetheless, this practice was only common to a few leading firms. Therefore, just like firms in contemporary business, most Japanese companies currently do not use the seniority-based wages system.

Enterprise unionism; all employees except the HR manager were represented by a single union (Lawler & Hundley 2008). Moreover, the union related well with management to avoid interrupting the firms’ operations. According to Lawler and Hundley (2008), unions within Japanese firms created strong ties between employees and the firm, motivated employees to compete for promotions which determined the distribution of wages, and contributed to employee commitment. Such roles of unions are not applicable in modern firms unions. As opposed to Japanese labor unions, unions in the modern business promote legislations affecting wages and working conditions (Lawler & Hundley 2008). In most cases, unions in contemporary business lead demonstrations against the firm thereby negatively affecting the operations. Therefore, employee unions in Japanese model of management promoted cooperation, unions in modern business involve in constant conflicts.

Contingencies for Success

However, the success of employment and organizational approaches depended on various factors including the company-specific skills. In most cases, employees’ skills were suited to the incremental innovations which enabled Japanese corporate to perform better than foreign competitors (Lawler & Hundley 2008). However, firm-specific skills are not suitable for modern firms because they (modern firms) experience knowledge intensive and fast-changing technologies. In contemporary business, specialists acknowledge creative ideas or knowledge which does not depend on the length of training within a firm, but are important drivers of the firms’ competitive strength (Lawler & Hundley 2008). Long-term firm-specific skill development might prevent flexible and swift response to new opportunities. Although training employees on skills which are specific for a particular firm is critical for modern firms, factors such as increased competition and aging of the population have reduced the efficiency of the Japanese HRM practices.

Changes in Employment Practices and Employment

To properly assess the relevancy of Japanese HRM practices in the contemporary economy, it is also important to consider some of the changes which have taken place in Japanese work life and economy. There are three major developments which have occurred on employment and employment practices. These include the rise in non-regular employment, introduction of performance-related pay, and increase in off-shoring of the production processes to South East and to China in mid-1990s.

The Increase in Non-regular Employment

Survey shows that the share of non-regular employment in Japan has increased from 20 % in mid-1990s to about 35 % over the last five years (Anami & Komiya 2011). The common types of non-regular employment in Japan are part-time, and arubaito, various groups with fixed-term contracts, and agency workers. Full-time workers in Japan work for 35 hours per week. Similarly, full-time employees work for between 35 and 40 hours per week in the modern economy (Stewart, 2011).  The rise in non-regular employment in Japan has resulted from the shift in manufacturing to service industries has. Therefore, the Japanese HRM practices have changed over time thus becoming relevant to modern economy.

Introduction of Performance-related pay

Most firms in Japan faced challenging economic conditions in the 1990s and 2000s. Such conditions forced most of them to introduce performance-rated pay from 1999 to strengthen their efficiency (Anami & Komiya 2011). Similarly, most firms in the modern economy evaluate their employees based on the performance and ability implying that employee assessment practices used in Japan economy are relevant in the modern business.

Off-Shoring

The third development in Japanese management practice is off-shoring. From 1990s to 2000s, Japanese international organizations moved parts of their production out of the country partly in search of the market and the need to shift Japan behind any tariff barriers which might be developed by the European Union (EU) or any other union (Anami & Komiya 2011). However, to some areas the move was motivated by low wages, and plentiful labor among other benefits. In other words, just like majority of firms in the modern economy, Japanese global companies moved from being export-based to being global coordinators of production.

In conclusion, the common perception is that, the Japanese HRM practices (Japanese model of management) do not constitute a relevant model in a contemporary business environment. That is partly due to practices such as firm-specific skills, recruitment from a particular gender, seniority-based wages, and lifetime employment among other management practices. However, decline in economic growth lead to various structure developments similar to those adapted in the modern business environment. Such developments include performance-related pay and non-regular employment among other changes. These management practices can be applied in the contemporary business.

Bibliography

Anami, T., & Komiya, F. (2011). Labour law in Japan. The Netherlands, Kluwer Law International, Alphen aan den Rijn.

Baker, H. K., & Powell, G. E. (2005). Understanding Financial Management a Practical Guide. Blackwell Pub, Oxford.

Debroux, P. (2003). Human resource management in Japan: changes and uncertainties; a new human resource management system fitting to the global economy. Ashgate, Aldershot [u.a.].

Lawler, J. J., & Hundley, G. S. (2008). The global diffusion of human resource practices: institutional and cultural limits. Emerald JAI, Bingley, UK.

Price, A. (2011). Human resource management. Cengage Learning EMEA, Andover.

Stewart, A. (2011). Stewart’s guide to employment law. Federation Press, Annandale, N.S.W.

Managing quality in Development (Module of HRM)

Introduction

Quality can be defined as a mean excellence, with zero defects in the satisfaction of the consumer needs and improvement of operations. Quality is bound to satisfy the customers need; therefore, the definition of quality in education is essential in the satisfaction of customers and stakeholders. Quality management refers to the processes used to guarantee and improve quality of training, education or learning across all the institutions (Dale et al. 2013). It aims at facilitating a continuous improvement and development of operations that are results oriented.  Quality management is an integral part of the education providers; therefore, it has a direct linkage to the functional levels within all the organizations. Quality management systems ensure that through a combination of different processes, excellence in the education sector is achieved.

Many factors such as the quality of teachers, school environment, teaching and learning materials and learning processes have a direct influence on the quality of education. Most of the countries have defined standard requirements   for teachers at different levels of the education system and different subjects (Jochems et al. 2013). In order to maintain and manage the standards of education, one of the major priorities is to assess the magnitude and the presence of undertrained teachers. The national accreditation and awarding bodies have the responsibility to confer awards on its behalf, subject to the implementation of the relevant accreditation process as part of the quality management system (Von Fragstein et al. 2008).

Self-evaluation, inspection and quality development planning

Self-assessment is the key process essential for raising the quality of provision of education and learning framework. All education providers need to submit a yearly self-assessment report (SAR) and a quality development plan (QDP) (Hermans et al. 2008). These are essential in monitoring of performance during a providers performance review.  The self-assessment reports are useful in both the internal and external purposes relating to continuous improvement of learning quality. Self-assessment reports and quality development plans are evaluated by the regional learning provision team, with the aid of the standardized evaluation forms available to the providers. Inspections are essential because they make a direct contribution to quality improvement, by exposing poor provision and best practices described in the inspection reports. Both the inspectorate asserts that the inspection has driven up the standards and quality of provision of education.

Enhancing the quality, effectiveness and efficiency in higher education

Higher education differs from the other sectors because its mandate is less defined and accepted. It on their means to achieve it more fragmented due to the autonomous nature of the institutions.  In order to maintain the quality of services within the institutions, the sector intends to obtain sectoral leadership from the cross section of the vice chancellors (Biggs & Tang 2011). The sector has also involved government inputs within the national and regional projects and the development input in the policy guidance and funding mechanisms, which might incentivize efficiency. The use of integrated management systems and the commercial approach has been adopted across different service elements.

The management dashboard delivers real time monitoring of the quality of education. It is central to the university’s ability to manage assets, set goals and projections. The process of self-evaluation is significant in the generation of information necessary for evaluation of overall quality improvement (Douglas et al. 2008). The management system is essential in the creation of set targets and points to drive further improvement. The process of self-evaluation is complimentary to external inspection. This is because it is designed to act as an ongoing process, which permeates the culture of the education council rather than a means to an end. For instance, the concept of self-evaluation is embedded across the Scottish educational system. The evaluations derived through the self-evaluation process enables the authority to establish its performance against its educational improvement objectives.

Managing quality of vocational education and training

Vocational education and training contribute to the economic competitiveness in the global economy. The objective of vocational training is to provide education and skills essential to meet the dynamic needs of the world, with the principles of lifelong learning (Berkes 2009). The aim of the vocational training is to promote the workplace innovation activities to develop operations within micro- enterprises. Therefore, continuous improvement of the quality of vocational education is a priority, in increasing the attractiveness of education and training. The quality of vocational education and training is improved in many different ways. The vocational training providers regularly evaluate the effectiveness of their evaluation systems, to develop an evaluation line consistent with the international evaluation strategy.

In addition, the vocational training management ensures that there is cooperation with the education and training providers to monitor the documents providing guidelines for the training. The vocational training managers focus on the identification of diverse customer groups with current and future needs. This is because the customers are the ultimate judges of the quality of education provided for education systems. Managing quality within vocational education and training ensures that the outcomes meet social responsibilities. Quality within the vocational training ensure that the skills needs of individuals in the global education sector takes into account the overall output of the curriculum. Therefore, they ensure that the education provided is of high quality to promote sustainable development as part of their operational systems.

Quality assurance and improvement models

Quality assurance is a recurring theme in the quality literature. Because quality in education is complex, there is need to plan the achievements of consistencies within diverse systems. It is an attribute that is effective in realizing the goals and high levels of performance. Assessment of quality in education requires judgment, dependent on the purpose and objectives of the education system (Dimmock 2013). Education systems are dynamic and variable; therefore, it is essential to ensure that the quality of delivery remains constant. For example, within the context of a learning society, it is essential to develop quality assurance practices that allow diversity.

Achievement of quality within an educational or training system involves a wide range of management processes relating to quality assurance and improvement in service delivery. This includes the processes that related to the accreditation of the education programs and learning achievements.  In addition, different models can be efficiently adopted with respect to the internal and external quality assurance and improvement. The partnership is important to effectively, achieve internal and external evaluation requirements. It is also essential for effective interaction and collaboration between various interested parties. Therefore, the quality concerns of the national qualifications authority will be of a different nature from those of other partners within the system. Nevertheless, the same agreed principles guide the development of processes and procedures across the range of different contexts involved (Boelen & Woollard 2009).

 

Quality systems related to education improvement

Quality system aids in achievement, maintenance and improvement of quality. Though the core issues relating to quality are enduring, the integrated mechanisms to achieve quality are dynamic.  To manage quality it is important to trace some of the emerging approaches to quality assurance, especially the ones relating to education and training (Stukalina 2010). Quality assurance systems originated in the context of standardizing weights and measures of the manufactured products. However, these services are widely adopted in a variety of circumstances and other institutions. For instance, in the context of education and training it relates to the performance of people and their conformance to the standards in education. It is, therefore, important to have quality assurance and improvement in the context of education. Total quality management is a concept adopted by the education stakeholders to ensure that the services and outcome have the relevant level of expertise and commitment from all the members. There are four pillars supporting total quality management. These pillars are management by practice, professional quality management, employees’ participation and recognition (Stephenson & Yorke 2013). However, it is essential to make a strategic choice for the implementation of the model, because the success of the model depends on the choice of strategy.

Accreditation processes

Accreditation is the major quality and improvement process involved in the national qualification system. Accreditation is the process of giving a formal and official acknowledgement of credit, status to an organization, an individual for an achievement of standards required (Doherty 2008). The purpose of the accreditation process is to ensure that consistency of standards and quality realization is met to facilitate improvement at the point of excellence. The qualification system involves the national qualification authority, awarding bodies and the providers of education and training inclusive of employers and social partnerships, learners and other stakeholders established. The government through legislation accredits the national qualifications authority.

The responsibility of authority includes the accreditation of awards to determine if they meet the defined benchmarks that lead to its recognition within the national qualification framework (Wyse et al. 2008). The national awarding body accredits the providers of education and training as a primary audits and reviews of institutions through registration. The registration process eases the process of accreditation as the registered providers are expected to conduct assessments on behalf of the awarding bodies. The body also has the responsibility of accrediting the programs and courses of education and training through the process of validating programs and courses. The learning outcomes are based on the results of the internal and external assessment carried by the inspection bodies through certification of the learners involved.

Quality indicators for the national education qualifications

For the purpose of delivery of quality education benchmarks needs to be developed to ensure that quality education is provided. The quality standard informs the process of developing awards by the relevant awarding bodies. The general issues relating to quality include sufficiency, reliability and cost effectiveness. A number of quality assurance and improvement models have been developed nationally, which identifies valuable examples of quality indicators of quality. For example the criteria identified in the United Kingdom for quality assessment inspects the modules and units for their achievement of specified learning outcomes (Alexander & Doddington 2010). They also assess the combination of units for awards to ensure coherence.

The indicators for educational qualifications have a clear purpose designed to provide opportunities for progression to higher education levels. Performance is measured against objectives within individual plans. It includes progress in meeting local targets for education, healthcare, children’s services and other plans. Evidence is published in progress reports and public performance reports. Achievement of targets for the provision of cultural experiences, residential experiences and outdoor education is necessary. Achievement of outcome of curriculum development initiatives, which have direct impact on learning, is essential in managing the quality of education and learning experience (Anderson 2008). These indicators relate directly to the impact of education services for learners; including pre- school children, school aged children and higher institutions of learning. The extent to which the learners and parents report learners’ educational experience enables them to become successful learners, confident individuals, who later become responsible citizens contributing effectively to the society.

Conclusion

Quality management within the context of education is an integral part of the education providers. Quality is the central issue in the national qualifications framework as it permeates through all the aspects of training. Quality management in education refers to the effective education systems regarding to the service delivery, cost and efficiency in the education system. Quality is the extent to which effectiveness and conformity is established within the awarding bodies of education and training, with reference to the standards and the demand of excellence from the learners’ and the stakeholders. It is, therefore, critical to stress the significance of quality to the education and training providers across all the institutions of learning such as colleges, community education, self-learning systems and the national training centers. The national accreditation and inspection authority oversees and guarantees quality of the national education system based on the development and implementation of a national qualification framework. Quality is a concern for every individual and organization involved in any given situation, as it cannot be imposed on a system by means of authority alone through a variety of sanctions. In order to achieve quality, there is a need for a careful balance of subsidiary, partnerships and authority among the interested parties.

 

Reference List

Anderson, T, (Ed.), (2008), The theory and practice of online learning, Athabasca University Press.

Alexander, R, & Doddington, C, (Eds.), (2010), The Cambridge Primary Review Research Surveys, Routledge.

Boelen, C, & Woollard, B (2009), Social accountability and accreditation: a new frontier for educational institutions, Medical Education, 43(9), 887-894.

Berkes, F (2009), Evolution of co-management: Role of knowledge generation, bridging organizations and social learning, Journal of environmental management, 90(5), 1692-1702.

Biggs, J, & Tang, C (2011), Teaching for quality learning at university, McGraw-Hill International.

Dale, BG, Van Der Wiele, T, & Van Iwaarden, J, (2013), Managing quality, John Wiley & Sons.

Doherty, GD (2008), On quality in education. Quality Assurance in Education, 16(3), 255-265.

Dimmock, C, (Ed.), (2013), School-based management and school effectiveness, Routledge.

Douglas, J, McClelland, R, & Davies, J (2008), The development of a conceptual model of student satisfaction with their experience in higher education, Quality Assurance in Education, 16(1), 19-35.

Jochems, W, Koper, R, & Van Merrienboer, J (Eds.), (2013), Integrated e-learning: Implications for pedagogy, technology and organization, Routledge.

Hermans, R., Tondeur, J., van Braak, J., & Valcke, M. (2008). The impact of primary school teachers’ educational beliefs on the classroom use of computers. Computers & Education, 51(4), 1499-1509.

Von Fragstein, M, Silverman, J, Cushing, A, Quilligan, S, Salisbury, H, & Wiskin, C (2008), UK consensus statement on the content of communication curricula in undergraduate medical education. Medical education, 42(11), 1100-1107.

Wyse, D, McCreery, E, & Torrance, H (2008), The trajectory and impact of national reform: Curriculum and assessment in English primary schools, Primary Review, University of Cambridge Faculty of Education.

Stukalina, Y (2010), Using Quality Management Procedures in Education: Managing the Learner-Centered Educational Environment, Technological and Economic Development of Economy, (1), 75-93.

Stephenson, J, & Yorke, M. (Eds.), (2013), Capability and quality in higher education, Routledge.

 

 

 

Learning, Training and Development (Module of HRM)

The competition in the world and the swift rate of changes are emphasizing the need of effective human capital in organizations with the capability of handling diverse work environments. Learning, training and development is part of the human resource management encouraging employees in organizations in gaining knowledge and skills. Economies in the modern world are characterised with uncertainties. Organizations are engaging knowledge in building sustainable competitive advantage that is reliable. Knowledge in organizations has become part of the capital in organizations in triggering sustainable development.

Organizations have developed diverse mechanisms of delivering knowledge to the human capital, in the business context, earlier organizations; competition was based on low costs of operations and in organizations gaining specific skills or resources. In the modern context, competition is based on efficient knowledge management and possessing of knowledge (Sinclair, 2008 p. 66). Organizations in the modern era are directing resources at developing knowledge among the human capital. The resources identify with information, money, energy and time among others. Gaining knowledge in organizations has led to permanent systems of training and developing employees.

Competitive organizations are considering creating new knowledge constantly, extending the knowledge to the rest of the organization and adapting to the knowledge fast and efficiently in producing sustainable products and services relevant to the target market (Sloane & Witney, 2009 p. 355). In so doing, the organizations are considered to be learning organizations. Constant innovation is a critical tool in developing products and services that are differentiated in the target market (Taylor, 2011 p. 116). New knowledge and learning are shaping the success of organizations in the face of the competition in the business environment.

Changes in information technology have generated tremendous spread of knowledge in the world, and the same information is becoming obsolesced quickly as organizations and individuals become more and more innovative. Surveys conducted on information technology in 1900 to 1950 indicated that knowledge has doubled and the trend is generating diverse information in the contemporary world (Sloane & Witney, 2009 p. 381).

Twenty first century is characterised with turbulent, uncertain and complex business environment that require diverse sources of knowledge in managing the ever changing business environment. Educational institutions are instilling knowledge to students who are future generations, but the knowledge gaps still exist (Vemić, 2007 p. 213). The knowledge gaps have facilitated organizations in joining the educational institutions in offering advanced training and development among the human capital. The knowledge needed in the business environments is growing with each and every day. The world is full of gadgets collecting real time information that need to be analysed in coming up with useful applications (Sinclair, 2008 p. 81).

Mass production of information is a reality, and organizations are taking advantage of selecting the information that will build a competitive edge in that particular industry. Customers in the target markets are after selective purchase patterns; this has forced organizations to produce products and services in accordance with the target customers. Different customer base has different tastes and preferences. The customer demands and expectations in products and services offered by organisations have greatly changed (Taylor, 2011 p. 98). The changing consumer demands have called for new knowledge and solutions in building a competitive edge.

The increased competition in the target market is forcing organizations to keep on changing the service mix, product mix and managerial methods in increasing productivity and sales (Vemić, 2007 p. 213). The dynamic competitions are calling for sophisticated information technology, market globalization and knowledge economy; which has influenced human resources management within organizations. It has been realized that human capital is very critical in the running of organizations in developing a strategic management of the organizations.

There are differences in organizations, and this indicates that organizations are run differently; it has become complex running organizations with multicultural human capital. Different human resources in organizations have various ways of training and developing employees. The differences in running organisations do not matter, management of knowledge in organizations makes the difference, particularly in complex, globalised and turbulent business environment; knowledge in such organizations is critical in building a competitive edge (Cascio & Boudreau, 2010 p. 300).

In the traditional setup, factors of production were labour, soil and capital. The same factors of production are still relevant in the current business environment, but they are no longer considered as primary factors anymore. Acquisition of knowledge in the twenty first century is critical to thriving of organizations in ever changing global environment. Competitive edge is being developed through realising the available information in the industry of operations, and then converting the knowledge in meeting the goals and objectives of organizations.

Most of the knowledge in organizations is located within the minds of the employees, it all about motivating the employees in generating the much needed knowledge in building a competitive edge (Vemić, 2007 p. 211). Employees act as carriers of activities and knowledge in organizations; this is a proof that human resources are influential to the success or failure of organizations in the modern era. The development of organizations is limited or accelerated by the human skills and knowledge, this is the reason attached to contemporary organizations paying great attention to the human capital within the organizations (Cascio & Boudreau, 2010 p. 287). In this context, employee training, development and education are offering optimal solution to the business environment that is ever changing.

Contemporary management is after training and development of employees as a way of sustaining organizations. Human resources department are offering diverse employee training and development as a way of gathering knowledge information that is reliable and constant. Human resources in organizations are facilitating constant innovation of knowledge, creating a business environment encouraging mutual knowledge, encouraging exchange of experience and in sparking a proactive behaviour guiding to satisfaction of all the participants in fostering a competitive edge (Scarborough, 2013 p. 387).

Human Resources Management in organizations encourages a learning organization, training and developing of employees, processing wages and salaries, facilitating employee benefits, recruitment of employees and facilitating performance appraisals. Other benefits are attached to maintaining a positive work environment, motivating employees, employee satisfaction and employee productivity among others.

Contemporary learning organizations are promoting employee training and development as a way of transforming the organizations from the traditional setup to the modern setup. Individuals ignoring learning are placed at the inferior position as compared to organisations and individuals that have adapted to innovation of new knowledge (Kegan & Lahey, 2009 p. 222). Success of organizations is not only based to the educated employees but also to the learning employees. The concept of knowledge is constant, but everything else in organizations will change. Knowledge shapes the direction of the organizations in fostering a learning environment.

 

Employee Training and Development

Employee training and development in organizations is critical in generating a competitive position. A learning organization values the contributions of employees to the growth of the organization. Organizational management in the global context is valuing planned training and development of employees, which is carried out with the intention of benefitting both the employees and organizations (Dessler, 2012 p. 588). Competitive organizations in the contemporarily business environment are not only relying on existing information but also generating new information relevant to the industry. This is a proof that continuous training and development of employees is useful in improving the performance of organizations and also in developing the individual employees.

Strategic approach to employee training and development focus at encouraging creativity, shaping the organizational knowledge and in ensuring constant inventiveness within an organization. This is critical in providing an organization within differentiation and uniqueness of the products and services offered by the organisation. Education among the employees is no longer for the people in the top management teams, but to all the employees within an organization (Cascio, 2012 p. 299). Established organizations spend huge resources in fostering training and development among the employees, which results to a learning organization.

Training and development in organizations is worth the investment in building confidence of facing the changing business environment. Surveys have shown that most organisations spend roughly three percent to five percent of the revenues on adult education targeting at training and development of the employees. This has been influential in making sure that organizations are moving with the changing business environment (Cascio, 2012 p. 198). Adopting the model of a learning environment is a prerequisite in sustainability of the organizations. Education does not stop with schooling; it is continuous in every aspect of human life. Gaining knowledge in human beings has no end; it is continuous for the junior and senior employees in fostering a learning organization.

Modern organizations must innovate ways of doing work or perish. Innovation in organizations takes a logical sequence, it starts with the creation of knowledge, aligning the new knowledge with the goals and objectives of the organisations and finally, creating a competitive edge out of the new knowledge. Knowledge in organizations is considered as good, the more the knowledge, the better in running of the organizations. Not all knowledge adds value to the organization; it is only the knowledge that offers strategic importance to the organization that counts (Carrig & Wright, 2006 p. 137).

Generation of knowledge in organizations targets the needs of the organization, applicability of the knowledge to the organization, knowledge fostering innovation spirit and knowledge that counts in creating a competitive advantage. Education is critical in gaining knowledge and learning which contribute to the quality of labour the employee offers to the organization. Human resource management chooses the educational methods, educational contents, educational efficiency and the objectives of the organization to be met (Noe, 2009 p. 132). Knowledge in organisations is, therefore, critical in setting the strategies of the organization necessary for the survival of an organization in the contemporary business environment. The employees must have the necessary knowledge in addressing the problems and challenges in the business environment (Robbins & Judge, 2012 p. 600).

Training and development of employees is not only connected to gaining skills, knowledge and abilities but also promoting entrepreneurship. This is prominent in introducing change to the organization, encourage adaptation to change as part of the employee’s attitude, preparing the employees in handling business decisions and involving all the employees in the decision making processes depending on context. All employees in an organization have a set of expectations and aspirations. Leaders and managers in organizations must have the ability of managing a diverse workforce with different skills, knowledge and abilities.

Organizations must have the ability of motivating employees as a way of retaining the workforce. The performance of workers should be attached to compensation and reward systems. Employees to be retained are workers of knowledge, skilled workforce and performing workers. Human resources must make sure that the organization is not only receiving information, but also generating own information. This is important in developing a learning organization (Bennett-Alexander & Hartman, 2011 p. 771). Employees in the contemporary world are not only working for money, but for other reasons depending on the expectations of the employees. Financial packages are no longer the only motivating factors in employees; employees are motivated by different things.

A learning organization

A learning organization facilitates training and development of the employees, which is part of enhancing the performance of the employees by disseminating knowledge to the employees. Training and development of the employees is designed to develop the employees in individuals and in teams, the employees realise individual potential that collectively build a competitive edge for the organization. Learning organisations encourage lifelong learning attitude (Berger, 2013 p. 183).

Contemporarily organisations in the strategic goals describe themselves as learning organizations. An example of organizations terming themselves as learning organizations are the Cisco and Coca-Cola that have set aside some top management teams to address issues of learning, knowledge generation and intellectual capital (Fitz-enz, 2010 p. 200). This has been influential in generating and adapting to the knowledge as part of the development tendencies. The knowledge then trickles down to the distributors, suppliers and customers in building a competitive advantage over competitors.

The employees create the knowledge and information, which is later used by the organization. In a learning organization, information and knowledge are allowed to flow freely at all levels. Contemporary organizations are using knowledge through encouraging engagement and facilitating a learning potential in all the employees within an organization. All the levels of organizations are involved in fostering a learning environment (Bridges, 2004 p. 89). Organizations are no longer after the instructions of the big brother, human capital in organizations are working in togetherness in teams in building a competitive edge. Organizations are doing away with barriers connected to hierarchies through free flow of information.

Threading the information in the contemporary world is calling for participation of all the stakeholders (Noe, 2001 p. 402). The future of the organizations will be defined by the capability of organizations to motivate its employees to become learning organizations. Different levels of the organizations must be willing to learn in facilitating a learning organization in the overhaul. Employees in the learning organization influence the direction of the sectors and functions of the organization in the creation of procedures and knowledge within the system. New values are created for the employees and for the target customers in building a competitive edge (Carrig & Wright, 2006 p. 99).

Learning organizations teach the employees how to learn, in so doing both the employees and the organization benefit from the experience. Resolving the employee’s conflicts is the first step of facilitating a learning organization. The continuous learning shapes success in the contemporarily business environments within an organization. Employees within an organization must be willing to learn for the organization to attain the position of a learning organization (Robbins & Judge, 2010 p. 676). All the stakeholders in the organization have an individual responsibility of learning in order for the same learning experience to be felt by the organization. Learning is encouraged among the well educated, the casual employees, professionals, highly powered and among the lowly powered. The only way for organizations to learn is through individuals embracing training and development; without individual learning, it automatically applies that there will be no organisational learning. It is worth noting that individual learning will not always lead to organizational learning (Bassi et al., 2012 p. 45).

Human resources have the capability identifying individuals with the capability of spearheading organizational learning. It is important for organizations to learn faster than the rate at which the competitors are learning; this is critical in offering sustainable competitive edge. A learning organization encourages employees to learn (Fitz-enz, 2009 p. 286). Learning organizations encourages human capital to exchange information freely in distributing the knowledge. Individual learning is then converted into organisational knowledge.

Power is generated by exchanging information, which is regulated by knowledge management in organisations by the human resource management. The synergic effect is realized by combining individual knowledge and exchanging knowledge among the employees. Individual knowledge becomes qualitative knowledge by combining knowledge for different employees. Sharing of obtained information is the driving force of a learning organization. A learning organization benefits by training and developing employees, such employees, are motivated to work, more creative, flexible at the workplaces and offer advanced social interactions (Berger, 2013 p. 142). A learning organization also benefit from better work teams due to mutual dependence and sharing of knowledge. A learning organization also benefit from greater work productivity among the employees, more qualitative services, data, procedures, profit and competitive advantage (Jackson, 2006 p. 97).

Recommendations

Organizations need to experience transformations through learning, training and development. In the contemporarily business environment, there is no shortcut, organizations must be willing to train and develop employees in becoming learning organizations. In many organizations, procedures for training and developing employees are at the infancy stages. Training and developing of the employees must be connected to the organizational strategies in creating a learning organization.

It is worth changing the attitudes of employees towards training and development; it is not an imposed obligation, but rather a potential for the employees to grow and help in building a learning organization. The knowledge will encourage innovation in the places of work, which contributes to better business practices (Bridges, 2004 p. 100). Top management teams must encourage the open relationship and communication channels with the employees. Training and development of the employees is worth investing since it contributes to a learning organization, which is attached to the organizational culture due to open sharing of knowledge.

Training and developing employees in the contemporary business environment is part of the responsibilities with the top management teams. Managers are encouraged to monitor training and development in maintaining a strategic perspective; this helps in discovering and encouraging new possibilities (Bassi et al., 2012 p. 19). Managers and leaders in contemporary organizations are not all-knowing, but they are in the leadership positions to foster inspirations and moderation, this is influential in overseeing the knowledge transfer in organizations (Robbins & Judge, 2010 p. 568).

In conclusion, human resources and the management of knowledge in organizations is gaining significance in the contemporary business environment. Organizational survival and conduct in the modern business environment has experienced diverse changes. Organizations are relying on organizational knowledge as a model for offering appropriate and timely solutions in building a competitive edge. An organization is termed as a learning organization through spearheading training and development among the employees of an organization, the same knowledge is transferred from the employees to the organizations in building a competitive edge. Organizations are encouraged to retain prominent employees as part of facilitating lifelong learning in the organization. The success of employees is the success of organizations and vice versa.

 

 

List of References

Bassi, L., Carpenter, R. & McMurrer, D (2012). HR Analytics Handbook. New York: McBassi & Company. 12-61.

Bennett-Alexander, D. & Hartman, L (2011). Employment Law for Business. 7th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin. 762-779.

Berger, G. J (2013). Changing on the Job: Developing Leaders for a Complex World. Palo Alto, California: Stanford University Press. 122-189.

Bridges, W (2004). Transitions: Making Sense of Life’s Changes. 2nd ed. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Da Capo Press. 12-165.

Carrig, K. & Wright, P (2006). Building Profit Through Building People: Making Your Workforce the Strongest Link in the Value-Profit Chain. Alexandria, Virginia: Society For Human Resource Management. 77-176.

Cascio, W (2012). Managing Human Resources. 9th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin. 123-327.

Cascio, W. & Boudreau, J (2010). Investing in People: Financial Impact of Human Resource Initiatives. 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey (US): FT Press. 201-300.

Dessler, G (2012). Human Resource Management. 13th ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. 344-654.

Fitz-enz, J (2009). The ROI of Human Capital: Measuring the Economic Value of Employee Performance. 2nd ed. New York: AMACOM. 123-319.

Fitz-enz, J (2010). The New HR Analytics: Predicting the Economic Value of Your Company’s Human Capital Investments. New York: AMACOM. 19-256.

Jackson, C. J (2006). Organization Development: The Human and Social Dynamics of Organizational Change. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America. 23-125.

Kegan, R. & Lahey, L (2009). Immunity to Change: How to Overcome It and Unlock the Potential in Yourself and Your Organization. Boston, MA: Harvard Business Review Press. 201-309.

Noe, A. N (2001). Employee Training & Development. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin. 299-443.

Noe, R (2009). Employee Training & Development. 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin. 111-286.

Robbins, S. & Judge, T (2010). Organizational Behaviour. 12th ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. 432-700.

Robbins, S. & Judge, T (2012). Organizational Behaviour. 15th ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. 564-675.

Scarborough, N (2013). Essentials of Entrepreneurship and Small Business Management. 7th ed. London: Pearson. 122-453.

Sinclair, A (2008). Leadership for the Disillusioned: Moving Beyond Myths and Heroes to Leading That Liberates. Crows Nest, New South Wales: Allen & Unwin. 34-87.

Sloane, A. & Witney, F (2009). Labour Relations. 13th ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. 322-387.

Taylor, S (2011). Leadership Craft, Leadership Art. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. 45-123.

Vemić, J. (2007). Employee Training And Development And The Learning Organization. Economics and Organization. 4 (2), 209 – 216.

 

Behaviorism At 100

Summary of the Main Points

For the last 100 years, behaviorism has evolved greatly as a science quite separate from psychology. This happened after the failure in attempts by several scientists to change psychology into a natural science. Behaviorism as a natural science can improve the status of other natural sciences by offering explanations to certain aspects of behavior that would attract explanations from mystical and superstitious perspectives (Ledoux, 2012). In this regard, behaviorism will improve the overall human development by solving the human behavior-related problems. Moreover, this is only achievable if there is harmony and mutual respect between other natural scientists and behaviorists.

The discipline of behaviorism originated from biology. However, this discipline has evolved to offer comprehensive analyses to wider areas such as human values, ethical standards, and the field of engineering (Ledoux, 2012). Behaviorism explains the close connection between the surrounding environment of the organism and the responses these stimuli elicit.

Behaviorism has several applications in real life. Many aspects of our life require behavior change. Such areas include green house emissions that cause global warming. Children suffering from autism can successfully realize fruitful lives when handled with behaviorists. Furthermore, the discipline of behaviorism continues to inform the instructional methods in schools (Ledoux, 2012). Better outcomes are realized when learners receive instruction with the use of models created by behaviorists.

 

Behaviorism as a discipline

Behaviorism evolved into a separate discipline from psychology due to several reasons. Firstly, psychology did not recognize standards, and procedures based on scientific evidence. Secondly, behaviorism never relies on non-scientific and mythical explanations to behavior, which marked the foundations of psychology (Ledoux, 2012). Lastly, behaviorism is already a discipline as a natural science, and should continue independently.

Evaluation of Claims

Ledoux (2012) claims that psychology, as a discipline did not recognize scientific procedures of relying on evidence. This claim does not entirely hold, since most experiments carried out in the other branches of psychology rely on empirical data. Thus, the deductions from such experiments follow rigorous scientific procedures. The second claim on mythical and non-scientific explanations is still not plausible. This because psychology seeks to connect behavior and stimuli, not to offer the scientific sense, and mechanisms accompanying such complex processes. However, there should be some incorporation of necessary concepts from other natural sciences to enrich the stimuli-behavior connection. The last argument of behaviorism being established, and thus should be a separate discipline does not hold. The writer seems to rely on what otherwise should be justified. This argument appears viciously cyclic.

Opinion on the Claims

The only valid claim should be on the inability of psychology as a discipline to adopt explanations from other fields of natural sciences. However, this requires evidence of complete refusal from the psychologists to accept mechanistic justifications of behavior, and the presence of non-scientific accounts to various forms of behavior. The writer does not offer any instances in support of these two grounds.

Skinner and Behaviorism as a discipline

To evaluate the view that Skinner would have given the new discipline of behaviorism, it is imperative to reflect on his psychological endeavors. Skinner got his doctorate in psychology, but his instructors had a firm biological background. The mentors of Skinner had emphasized the need for a proper explanation to the mechanism of interaction between stimuli and behavior (Ledoux, 2012). Such a view would have made Skinner to radically reduce the boundary between psychology and other natural sciences, and thus keep behaviorism within the realm of psychology.

References

Ledoux, S. F. (2012). ‘Behaviorism at 100: Over its second 50 years, the study of behavior evolved to become a discipline, behaviorology, independent of psychology’. American Scientist, Academic One File in the CSU Online Library. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA287112109&v=2.1&u=oran95108&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w.

 

 

 

 

Lenovo Group Ltd

Abstract

Despite Lenovo has been operational for less than three decades, it surpassed several older electronic producing firms to become the world’s third largest PC manufacturer. Currently, Lenovo’s assets are valued at US$34 billion. Moreover, the company has over 33, 000 employees and operates in over 160 countries.  As such, the paper offers an analysis of factors which allowed Lenovo to become a global market leader.

 

Introduction

Lenovo is China’s largest and World’s second largest personal computer manufacturer (Liu, 2007). Besides electronic products Lenovo also develops software and provide internet services and network solutions. However its’ most popular products include PCs, servers, workstations, tablets, Smart TVs among other mobile internet services. Although Lenovo was formed in 1984 it achieved its position as a leading technology firm in 2004. Initially, Lenovo was referred to as the New Technology Development Company (NTD co.). It was a pioneer project by Chinese Academy of Sciences. Zhou and Ahrens (2013) assert that Lenovo was established in order to expand China’s information and technology sector’ revenues; to facilitate government budget allocations but not to not to create internationally competitive technology firm.

By this time, many research institutes and public universities in China were setting up companies. Zhou and Ahrens (2013) further cite that such firms were referred to as “Guoyou Minying” companies. That is, the firms were state owned but managed by independent people or private contractors. Lenovo’s co-founder Mr. Chuanzi Liu and 1o other scientific researchers were awarded a loan worth RMB 200,000 (US $ 24,164) to serve as startup capital while other operating revenues were to be generated by the private founders.

However, NTD invested more in information and technology infrastructure and related research resources. Liu (2007) cites that Chinese ICT also paid workers salaries that amounted to about RMB 20 ($30). In 1987 a leading Chinese researcher, Ni Guangnan developed a language add-on card. Through this technology, NTD gained a 50% market share. A year later the company partnered with China technology and DAW. This partnership allowed NTD to have more access to loans from established financial institutions such  as Bank of China, China resources, Everbright and Patent Agent HK.  A few months later Legend Computer Group, a foreign technology firm based in Hong Kong, acquired NTD Company.  As a result, company’s head quarter was transferred from Beijing to Hong Kong. Zhou and Ahrens (2013) argue that Hong Kong’s strong economic position together with Legend Company’s past experiences further boosted NTD position in the Chinese markets. That is, since Legend was China’s third largest personal computer manufacturer after AST and Compaq, it had established a strong brand. Therefore, Lenovo’s success is attributed to three major factors; strategic merger and acquisition deals with various stakeholders and increasing investment in research and development, and excellent financial management techniques.

Strategic Alliances with Key Stakeholders

            Lenovo acquired expertise from both local and foreign expertise in manufacturing, management, technology and marketing which in turn allowed the firm to rise faster than the rival firms. First and foremost, alliance between NTD Company and Chinese government encourage the firm founders to exploit opportunities in such a risky market. At the same time, the imports tariff reduction by the Chinese in the early 1990s, opened growth opportunities for Lenovo.  That is, in 1992 Chinese Government not only reduced tariffs on imported PCs but also eliminated quotas on such electronic products. Consequently, more foreign companies entered Chinese PC market. Zhou and Ahrens cite (2013) that the foreign PC makers had more advantage over legend. For example, the companies produced most PC at the foreign branches where production and labor costs were much lower than china. This allowed foreign branches to set relatively lower prices than the domestic firms.

As a result most domestic firms formed strategic alliances with the foreign companies. In most cases, Chinese domestic firms were sales or distributive agents for American, Japanese and Finland computer manufacturing firms. However, Legend employed more creative workers, acquired more intellectual property resources and increased research. Therefore, it built more competitive advantage over other “Gouyou Minying” firms (Millman, 2008).

However, Lenovo’s growth strategy changed because it planned to expand further into newer markets. That is, it also signed sales and distribution deals with other foreign companies such as Apple, Toshiba, Canon, Sun and IBM. The change in strategy was largely influenced by the fact that Chinese government removed import quotas on PC but prohibited foreign firms from establishing distribution and retail operations in the country. Such laws presented exceptional opportunity for Legend to increase its market share especially in newer markets that it had not fully exploit. At the same time, through partnership with the foreign companies, Legend acquired new information, experiences and networks that later played key roles in its growth. For example, its mutual relationship with the present co-partners such as IBM began during this period.

In addition, strong distribution networks enabled Lenovo to gather information on market trends and consumer needs. Therefore, it began producing more technologically advanced PCs that also met consumer needs. Luo (2008) argues that although the partnership with foreign PCs required the domestic suppliers not to alter the product qualities, it allowed the domestic firms to discover more useful market information.  This is particularly because Chinese laws hindered foreign firms from establishing distribution channels.

Financial Management Strengths

Although foreign associates made key decisions such as price that were set by the domestic firms, Legend implemented creative financial strategies that enabled it maximize profits from such deals. Zhou and Ahrens (2013) cite that most Legend’s profit at the time came from foreign brand sales while only a small portion originated from its own brands. Such additional profits allowed the firm to produce more high quality products. For example, Lenovo ploughed the profits back into the business, therefore had more resources to support its recurrent activities.

Similarly, Lenovo acquired more investors because it publishes accurate financial information. Lenovo’s founders Wong and Liu had experience in accounting and entrepreneurship, therefore made wise long term decisions. Millman (2008) argues that Lenovo survived the 2008 global crisis because it properly evaluated its financial position. In other words, accurate information allows the company to make more informed investment decisions.

Increased Investments in Research and PC related Technologies

Since early Chinese laws highly restricted foreign PC manufacturers’ activities, most foreign products did not meet customer needs. Deng (2009) asserts that while most foreign PC brands required customers to personally customize their computers, Lenovo provided localized solutions to its customers. This was due in part to the discoveries it made while serving as a distributor to the foreign firms. For example, through the marketing research it gathered first hand information on physical factors that affected the local consumers’ internet connectivity. Consequently, it offered stronger internet networks. On the other hand, foreign competitors such as IBM and Compaq focused mainly on profitable market segments.

Moreover, China’s strict regulations hindered foreign Pc producers from importing latest products into the country. Liu (2007) argues that low incomes that were associated with the Chinese consumers implied that foreign companies only brought in their cheapest products and exported expensive products to high income countries. Therefore, the old brands were the most prevalent PCs in China. Owing to this fact, Lenovo’s growth was adversely affected by the cost and price constraints. For instance, in 1996 was forced to reduce its prices by over 25% while it introduced its latest central processing unit. However, in the end Lenovo’s market share dramatically increased. In fact, the company became top PC seller in China.

Similarly, in 1998 Lenovo launched its Intel Pc brand. The brand Chairman Andy Grove together with other employees from its Beijing branch conducted a major marketing campaign that further increased the firm’s popularity. Lenovo (2013) cites that by the end of 1998 it market share had jumped to 17.9% and was ranked in the third position in the Asia Pacific region. This further motivated the firm to implement more aggressive marketing campaigns. In 1999, Lenovo market share rose again by over 10%, thereby rising to the top position in Asia Pacific region (Lenovo, 2011).

Lenovo’s Expansion to International Markets

When China became a full member of World Trade Organization in 2001, it lifted all the quotas and tariffs on ICT products. This intensified competition in the PC market but Legend continued to dominate Chinese market. However, since it had penetrated to all the markets in the country, it began searching for growth opportunities in the international market. Millman (2008) asserts that Lenovo’s experienced at the domestic enabled the firm to establish its brand name in the international markets. In 2003 Legend changed its name to Lenovo particularly because several other firms had a similar name. In the same year, Lenovo was the official Olympic Games sponsor. Nevertheless, its most rewarding strategic move occurred in 2004, when it acquired IBM’s ThinkPad PC business. The firm’s combined resources significantly increased; that is, its employees increased to thousands while the customer base rose by millions. Liu (2007) Lenovo not only retained IBM creative employees but also sent a marketing team to reassure its loyal customers that it would continue providing high quality services. This indicates that despite the merger, Lenovo retained its unique corporate culture. Since 2004, Lenovo has maintained a steady growth. For instance, Lenovo’s present assets are valued at US$34 billion. Moreover, Lenovo Company has over 33, 000 employees and operates in more than 160 countries.

In conclusion, Lenovo strong position in the global market was largely contributed to by its dominant position in China. Since Chinese government restricted foreign computer manufacturing firms from creating distribution and retail operations in the country, such firms were influenced to form alliances with the domestic firms. At the time, Legend was the fastest growing firm therefore it was admired by several worlds’ leading PC manufacturing firms. As a result, Lenovo’s competitiveness increased due to the fact that it better understood the local consumers’ tastes and preferences. In addition, it developed more comprehensive distribution channels than the rival firms. Through the distribution channels it made cutting edge technologies that allowed it to strengthen its market position.

 

References

Deng, P. (2009). Why do Chinese firms tend to acquire strategic assets in international expansion? Journal of World Business, 44(1), 74-84.

Lenovo. (2011). Lenovo to acquire IBM personal computing division. Retrieved 12, March, 2014, from http://news.lenovo.com/article_display.cfm?article_id=1287

Lenovo. (2013). Our company. Retrieved on 12 March, 2014, from http://www.lenovo.com/lenovo/us/en/our_company.html.

Liu, C. (2007). Lenovo: An example of globalization of Chinese enterprises. Journal of International Business Studies, 38(4), 573-577.

Luo, Y. (2008). A strategic analysis of product recalls: The role of moral degradation and organizational control. Management and Organization Review, 4(2), 183-196.

Millman, G. J. (2008). Global growth from East to West. Financial Executive, 24(10), 31-33.

Zhou, Y., & Ahrens, N. (2013). Case study: Lenovo. Washington DC: Center for Strategic & International Studies.

Gardner

The theory of multiple intelligence describes intelligence as a primary sensory as opposed to observing human competence as single general ability. Howard Gardner designed and established the theory of intelligence in the late 1983. Gardner states that individual intelligence incorporates seven critical elements (Helding, 2009). As the theory highlights, human intelligence has several components including intrapersonal intelligence, interpersonal competence, linguistic knowledge, bodily kinesthetic, logical-mathematical, naturalistic, and spatial knowledge (Spearman, 20004).

In reference to his observation, Gardner states that human beings do not have underlying intelligence. Instead, modern individuals have several types of intelligence. For instance, the current president of United States of America has the intelligence of linguistic as well as the interpersonal intelligence. The United States president has the ability of producing a speech that can move a huge number of United States populations. Equally, the president has the intelligence of forming formidable interaction with all professionals in the society (Klein, 2007).

According to the Multiple Intelligence Theory, individual social and cultural background has a critical role in shaping human intelligence. Moreover, the manner in which an individual grows up in the society has a critical role in shaping individual skills and competence. As Gardner highlights, there are various components of individuals’ skills and competence. The linguistic competence helps individuals to present themselves in challenging situations. For example, the current United States president relies on his linguistic intelligence in convincing the American Congress to pass crucial bills and Acts. The president also has an aptitude of languages that attract a huge number of his followers in American and other parts of the world (Nikolova, & Taneva-Shopova, 2007).

The logical-Mathematical intelligence helps individuals in dealing with challenging and complicated mathematical problems. In his researches and evaluation, Gardner states that few personnel in the contemporary society have the skills and ability of solving challenging numerical and mathematical problems. The spatial intelligence is useful in assisting individuals to perceive spatial and visual information. The spatial intelligence also assists scholars in conceptualizing the world arts and navigation activities.

Musical intelligence has so far proved to be one of the most useful competencies in modern society (Scarr, 1985). Although some scholars have described the musical intelligence as a natural skill and talent, the available information affirms that the intelligence requires nurturing and training. For instance, some of the prominent musicians in modern society have confirmed their commitments in facilitating the success of their career. In his testimony, Michael Joseph confirmed that musical competence requires continuous training and learning.  In an interview, Michael Joseph affirmed his endless commitments towards emerging as one of the most successful musician in the 21^st century.

According to Multiple Intelligence Theory, bodily-kinesthetic intelligence helps individuals in succeeding in various physical activities including dancing and sports. Modern prominent sportsmen and dancers have relied on their bodily-kinesthetic intelligence in succeeding in modern competitive society. The Multiple Intelligence Theory has also offered detailed analysis on the interpersonal intelligence. In his observation, Gardner states that interpersonal intelligence is the ability of facilitating productive communication and intellection between two individuals (Gardner, 1998). Furthermore, according to Multiple Intelligence Theory, the naturalist intelligence is individual ability and skills of understanding natural phenomenon (Kavale & Forness, 2007).

As a result, the Multiple Intelligence Theory is one of the most successful theories in describing the existing individual intelligence. Although some scholars associate individual skills and intelligence with one mental makeup, the existing literature review confirms that environmental factors has a critical impact in defining individuals’ intelligence. Therefore, intelligence is not entirely due to one definition but on more than one aspect of human ability.

References

Gardner, H (1998), A Reply to Perry D. Klein’s multiplying the problems of intelligence by           eight, Canadian Journal of Education 23 (1): 96–102

Helding, L. (2009), Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences, Journal of Singing           66 (2), 193–199

Kavale, K., & Forness, S., (2007), Substance over style: Assessing the efficacy of modality           testing and teaching, Exceptional Children, 54, (1), 228–239

Klein, P., (2007), Multiplying the problems of intelligence by eight: A critique of Gardner’s           theory, Canadian Journal of Education 22 (4), 377–394

Nikolova, K., & Taneva-Shopova, S. (2007), Multiple intelligences theory and educational            practice, Annual Assesn Zlatarov University 26 (2), 105–109

Scarr, S. (1985),  An authors frame of mind [Review of Frames of mind: The theory of     multiple intelligences, New Ideas in Psychology 3 (1), 95–100

Spearman, C. (20004), General intelligence, objectively determined and measured. American        Journal of Psychology 15, (1)201-293

Analysis and Evaluation of Arguments

The debate concerning hate speech in college campuses has continued to elicit sharp yet intellectual arguments between both sides. Generally, it is rather noteworthy to see people rise up against acts of discrimination and prejudice in order to prevent further segregation especially among minority populations. Nonetheless, in a complex system such as the American education structure, there is proof of contradiction in relation to individual expression. On one hand, Rauch claims that restricting hate speech infringes on intellectual pluralism. In addition to this, Silvergate and Lukianoff further assert that any person is capable of exuding his or her views regardless of the implications they may impose on other people. Alternately, Stillwell claims that the fight against hate speech in universities involves restricting people from expressing opinions that predispose towards prejudice. In light of the claims expressed above, is it true that the freedom of speech comprises the main argument based on the two opposing sides?

Overview of the Hate Speech Argument

In overview, the Freedom of Speech is a basic and essential privilege provided within the American constitution. Present within the First Amendment, the constitutional right offers people with a platform to exude their views and perspectives liberally under limited constraints. However, pertaining to the issue concerning free speech in college campuses, the manner in which students and academicians can exhibit their thoughts regarding sensitive topics construes a dilemma between liberal expression and ethics. For instance, a professor or lecturer may choose to research on the different levels of intelligence among African Americans and white Americans. Even though such a study may infringe on ethical boundaries based on the way it may pit both sides against each other, it is a platform for the academician to express himself liberally. In addition to this, the doctrine of academic freedom further enables him to conduct such a study without interference from the educational institutions or the students.

Arguments for Hate Speech

Nonetheless, the argument regarding free speech in college campuses has established differing opinions within the education fraternity. On one hand, supporters of free speech (hate speech) through logic assert that such expression is considerably beneficial since it provides a platform for the institution of intellectual pluralism. According to Rauch (1), intellectual pluralism is rational since it enables individuals to pit prejudice against itself in order to advance knowledge. Furthermore, by challenging conventional social norms, intellectual pluralism allows people to be critical of their convictions and beliefs, rather than dormant and unaware of the fallibility that such mores may possess. Therefore, restricting people from expressing their views hinders the attainment of knowledge. Concerning American campuses, supporting free speech is important especially in the dissemination of advantageous information. This is because it enables academicians to practice academic freedom and enable students to exercise scientific research.

Additionally, Rauch (1) also surmises that allowing prejudice motivates people to be logical and critical of their beliefs and opinions. Indeed, the author states that, “…stamping out prejudice really means forcing everyone to share the same prejudice, namely that of whoever is in authority” (Rauch 1). Simply, prejudice is a significant tool in the transmission of new ideas and discoveries that may further the society in the end. However, introducing mechanisms that subdue the freedom of expression for the sake of bias and bigotry only restricts individuals from conveying their personal perspectives and listening to what others have to say regarding a particular subject. For instance, techniques such as speech codes deny students of their rights to free speech based on the constraints and permissions they impose on topics. Undeniably, such mechanisms are restrictive based on the manner students practice them prejudicially in order to suit their political ideologies. This is evident where Silverglate and Lukianoff (635) state that, “A whole generation of American students is learning that its members should hide their deeply held unpopular beliefs”. Based on this, it is evident that the limitation of free speech limits academic intellect.

Moreover, Lawrence III (628) states that placing restrictions over speech also imposes negative effects on the affected people. In order to appeal logically, the author utilizes the issue of racism in order to assert the damage that restricting expression on such a sensitive topic may pose unfavorable implications on the victims. Lawrence III states that the freedom of speech is “especially important for minorities because often it is their only vehicle for rallying support for the redress of their grievances” (629). Explaining this, Lawrence III asserts that allowing individuals to exude their perspectives without employing restrictions allows the affected to address their concerns intellectually. Ensuring that such a democratic right undergoes practice provides further room for establishing equality. This is because people have the liberty to advance their opinions. Therefore, restricting speech will only be difficult for both the majority and minority populations since it will make it difficult for the former to express themselves and the latter to challenge such convictions and grievances rationally.

Arguments Against Hate Speech

On the other hand, Stillwell states that free speech, due to its lack of limitations, only acts as a platform for exercising discrimination against minority populations and women. Supporting this personally, the manner in which they exude such claims is rather questionable. Instead of appealing logically or ethically, Stillwell claims that opposers of hate speech use force and disrespect in order to convey their disparate perspectives concerning the freedom of expression. For instance, there is evidence of mob rule in college campuses, which limits individuals from liberal expression. According to Stillwell (632), “America’s college campuses, once thought to be bastions of free speech, have become increasingly intolerant toward the practice”. From this, the author states that campuses nowadays restrict the dissemination of free speech. For instance, public speakers conveying their views concerning responsive issues such as bigotry and religion experience harassment from a certain faction of students regularly.

As irresponsible and illogical as it may seem, these situations consistently take place in college campuses. Indeed, if the public speaker does not speak of views that conform to the students’ ideals, then mobbing will occur forcing the individual to be unable to explain himself or herself rationally. Nonetheless, mob rule poses negative effects on free speech in universities. The most common of this can only be reiterated through Rauch. As mentioned, “…stamping out prejudice really means forcing everyone to share the same prejudice, namely that of whoever is in authority” (Rauch 1). In explanation, the author surmises that restricting biased speech only implements such prejudice amongst people in relation to the leader’s beliefs. The same applies to mob rule. By rebutting non-conformist views, mobbing only forces students to be part of the faction’s thought system hence restricting them from exercising their opinions freely.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the arguments leveled for and against hate speech appeal to the audience through logos. On one hand, Rauch claims that supporting hate speech enables the dissemination of intellectual pluralism, which enables students to be rather expressive and critical of previously held beliefs. On the other hand, Stillwell surmises that limiting hate speech only protects targets from being hurt. However, it is apparent that the argument for hate speech is rather rational. This is because it calls for the freedom of expression, which is important in critical thinking and intellectual furtherance.

Works Cited

Lawrence III, Charles R. “The Debate Over Placing Limits on Racist Speech Must Not Ignore the Damage It Does to Its Victims.” Patterns for a Purpose: A Rhetorical Reader. Ed. Barbara F. Clouse. New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education, 2011. 627-630. Print.

Rauch, Jonathan. “In the Defense of Prejudice: Why Incendiary Speech Must Be Protected.” Harper’s Magazine. 1995. Web. 13 Mar. 2014. <http://www.jonathanrauch.com/jrauch_articles/in_defense_of_prejudice/>.

Silverglate, Harvey A. and Greg Lukianoff. “Speech Codes: Alive and Well at Colleges.” Patterns for a Purpose: A Rhetorical Reader. Ed. Barbara F. Clouse. New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education, 2011. 632-637. Print.

Stillwell, Cinnamon. “Mob Rule on College Campuses.” Patterns for a Purpose: A Rhetorical Reader. Ed. Barbara F. Clouse. New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education, 2011. 622-625. Print.

 

Personal Experiences and Impact on the Community:

Question 1

As the residential head for my hostel, it is my prime duty to maintain a favorable environment for all the students residing in it. I handle day-to-day issues affecting the students’ welfare while in the hostels. Apart from that, I have to ensure there is relevant communication with the administration in case of any grievances and suggestions brought forward by the various students. All disputes between students and those involving the no-teaching staff are handled at my office. It is my responsibility to advice relevant students on matter non-academic once they need help at any given time.

Question 2

I have an immense passion in soccer and sports in general. I have developed a profound commitment in practice on the soccer field on a daily routine with my teammates, showing the desire to excel and learn more in the sport. Through studying skills of well renowned soccer greats across the globe, am able to mesmerize opponents and leave them for dead with such ease. I am part of the official campus team. I like to come up with ideas on attack and generally share them with the team to sharpen the teamwork and cohesiveness.

Question 3

The environment club of the campus has greatly helped me in community service and giving back to the society. All members of the club together with the willing members of the community voluntarily carry out regular cleanups of the neighboring communities on a monthly basis. Apart from cleanups, we undertake exercises on maintenance of hygiene, safe disposal of waste, consumption of clean drinking water and clean food (Gellman, 2013). The community is now a better and safe place to live in and the number of hygiene related sickness has greatly reduced, which is quite positive.

References:

Gellman, M. D., & Turner, J. R. (2013). Encyclopedia of behavioral medicine. New York, NY: Springer.

 

 

 

 

Personal Class Design

Introduction

Many people in the world today have an experience on the care given by nurses or are aware of such care from experiences shared by friends or family. The first thing that they point out is that they want to be cared for by a nurse who is qualified, meaning that he/she is skilled, knowledgeable and competent (Butts & Rich, 2013). They also identified the fact that they would want to be treated well every time they visit a healthcare institution. The latter expectation is that the treatment they receive would be a human beings and not as cases. Making patients feel safe and comfortable is one of the mandates of nurses. They should not only care for patients but should also care about them (Gastmans, 2013). Thus, nurses should have a good attitude all the time so as to care for patients with the respect, compassion and empathy that they deserve.

The guaranteed way of ensuring that nurses treat their patients in the most humane way possible is to ensure that they are aware of the ethics that they should abide to. Nursing ethics form a guideline that outlines how nurses ought to treat their patients and which boundaries not to cross (Benjamin & Curtis, 2010). Therefore, this class is meant to impart ethical behavior in students. The thesis statement developed for this paper is that there is a need to impart ethics into aspiring and practicing healthcare practitioners and this can be done within an intensive four-hour class. There may be skepticism on the length of time available for covering such a large topic exhaustively. However, this class is designed in a way that it uses empirical evidence from normal human behavior and expectations to draw conclusions (Kress & Selander, 2012). Rather than teach abstract and generic topics and theory, this paper is designed to appeal to the human nature of the students by allowing them to take part in the discussion from both the positions of practitioners and patients. It will also draw on their individual experiences during visits to healthcare institutions in order to strike a rapport with them and gain relevance.

Class design

Classes	Learning activities	Assessment activities
Part 1: Ethical Decision-Making (1 hour 10 minutes)	·   Lecture ·   Small group discussion ·   Assigned chapters ·   journals and websites ·   Scenario enactments	Quizzes Random questions Enactments
Part 2: Nursing liability (1 hour 20 minutes)	·   Lecture ·   Small group discussion ·   Assigned chapters and articles from journals and websites	Quizzes Random questions Enactments
Part 3: Prevention of liability (1 hour 30 minutes)	·   Lecture ·   Small group discussion ·   Assigned chapters and articles from journals and websites ·   Scenario enactments	Quizzes Random questions Enactments Final paper

 

Description of sponsoring organization

Nursing ethics are important for healthcare professions as they are the template on which care is based and are important in avoiding liabilities. The National Institute of Nursing Research (NINR) is an organization that is charged with the improvement and promotion of health in entire populations with specific focus on individuals, families and communities (National Institute of Nursing Research, 2013). The major role of this organization is to conduct both basic and clinical research and also to conduct training in order to build on the existent scientific knowledge on the management of disease symptoms, prevention of diseases and disability, and improvement of end-of-life and palliative care. The intramural and extramural research programs conducted by this organization are geared towards the incorporation of scientific exploration in order to improve the quality of health services and health outcomes in general. This institution funds the research that is aimed at cultivating more qualified nurse scientists and ensures this by conducting extensive trainings for new nurses as well as for veteran nurses. This organization focuses mostly on provision of training to those nurses that are from disadvantaged backgrounds or are from underrepresented areas.

In order to ensure that nurses are armed with the relevant knowledge and skills, NINR works closely with other disciplines that have overlapping interests like those that offer long term care for older people, those that deal with special needs for women throughout their lives, departments that deal with the treatment and prevention of infectious diseases and many more. Additionally, the NINR works closely with the Clinical and Translational Science Awards (CTSA) program in order to recognize extraordinary contributions to the nursing practice.

The NINR is mostly involved in conducting research and training nurses. It is driven by the desire to improve on the scientific and evidence-based care systems that are already developed. This class deals specifically with ethical issues and in particular with ethical decision-making, nursing liability and the prevention of liability. The NINR outlines these topics in such a way that they are not only supported in law but are also supported by research into the desires of patients. Instead of just imparting this knowledge on the students, the NINR has conducted research into the ways that patients and their friends and relatives would like to be treated in care institutions. Thus, the empirical data that is sourced from these researches will form the basis for the class.

Needs assessment 

There are many methods that are used in combating different types of conditions in patients. In offering care, nurses might be overwhelmed by the different types of care that are needed for specific patients. This leaves gaps where patients might be accorded the wrong type of care hence making the nurses and the institutions liable. In order to avoid liability in the course of care giving, nursing ethics are paramount. There is a need gap in the way that ethics are imparted. This is because, most nurses are taught to follow rigid procedures in the course of giving care. This class, as sponsored by the NINR, is meant to teach nursing ethics differently. Instead of teaching wholesale concepts to students, they will source the information in the researches conducted by the institution so that they internalize it. Evidence-based ethical practice is bound to have a more profound effect on the students as compared to theory-based practice.

Class description    

The class will dwell on the ethical practices that are expected in nursing practice. Ethics are described as those values within the conduct of humans that deal with the degree of right or wrong of actions taken, the nature of their motives either good or bad, and the consequences of such actions. Thus, the basic aim of the class will be to teach students on the actions, motives and consequences of their actions in different circumstances. The lessons contained herein will be based on the laws, rules and regulations, which determine the decisions that nurses make. The class will also outline the various liabilities that may be incurred by nurses and modes of preventing them. The entire class will take four hours to complete and will be divided into three parts; ethical decision-making, nursing liabilities and prevention of liabilities. Ethical decision-making will take the least time, 1 hour and 10 minutes, with the ten minutes at the end being the time that the instructor will take to assess whether the students have understood the information dispensed using a five-minute quiz. The nursing liability part will take ten more minutes than the previous section as it will start by reviewing what was taught in the first part as well as relaying the results on the performance of the first part. The rest of the class structure will resemble the first. The last part will start as the second with a discussion of the previous sections and dispensing results for the previous part. This section will however end with a more comprehensive test that will take fifteen minutes to gauge the general understanding of the students of the entire four-hour class.

Target audience

            Ethics classes are usually relevant to many practitioners as they are universal. This class is therefore targeted at all groups of individuals that come into contact with patients in and outside healthcare institutions and who assist the patients in management of their conditions. This may include nurses, doctors, clinical officers and laboratory technicians. The course will be aimed at imparting the requisite knowledge to this group of people before they embark on their chosen careers. Thus, it targets a large number of high school graduates who are interested in pursuing a career in healthcare. Due to the sheer size of the targeted group, there will be need of a comprehensive assessment mechanism to ensure that the information dispensed is internalized by the students. One of the reasons for the existent of doubt to the extent to which students internalize academic material is because the current education system extrinsically motivates them to learn these materials for the sake of getting good grades and progress to the next level. However, this case is unique because nursing ethics are not to be cruised through as they form the core onto which more technical nursing concepts and other healthcare principles will be transposed.

As stated above, there will be need for comprehensive assessment in order to ensure that the concepts are internalized. There are a number of ways in which this will be achieved. First, there will be short, five-minute quizzes done at the end of every discussion. This will be handed to the instructors at the end of the lesson so that the level of student comprehension can be assessed. The instructor will also constantly ask random questions in the course of the discussions. Another technique for assessment will be the enactment of healthcare scenarios where students will be required to mimic different characters. Through this means, instructors can identify whether the students have grasped the basic information. It also helps those that have not understood the importance or application of ethical practices to visualize them in the enactments. At the end of the entire class, there will be a standardized fifteen-minute exam that will test the overall understanding of the information taught.

Learning resources

Carrol, P. (2004). Community health nursing: A practical guide. Clifton Park, NY: Delmar publications.

Centers for Disease Control (2008). Community guide to prevention. Atlanta, GA.

Corbin, J. (2008). Is caring a lost art in nursing? International Journal of Nursing Studies, 42(2),163-165.

Council of Community Health Nurses (1988). Standards of community health nursing practice. Kansas City: American Nurse’s Association.

Dawoud, D. & Maben, J. (2008). Nurses in society: starting the debate. Written evidence. London: National Nursing Research Unit, King’s College

Henderson, A., Van Eps, M.A., Pearson, K., James, C. & Henderson, P. (2007). ‘Caring for’ behaviours that indicate to patients that nurses ‘care about’ them. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 60(2),146-153.

Kuhse, H. & Singer, P. (2009). A Companion to Bioethics. Chichester UK: Blackwells

Maben, J. & Griffiths, P. (2008). Nurses in Society: starting the debate London: National Nursing Research Unit, King’s College

Tschudin, V. (2003). Ethics in Nursing: the caring relationship (3rd ed.). Edinburgh: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Wood, V. (2008). Nurses in Society: starting the debate. Oral evidence. London: Lala & Wood

Relevant journals

Journal of Public Health Policy

American Association of Occupational Health Nursing Journal

Journal of Community Health Nursing

Family and Community Health

Journal of School Nursing

American Journal of Public Health

Home Health Care Nursing

Public Health Nursing

Useful internet sources

Internet Health Coalition: www.ihealthcoalition.org

US department of Health and Human Service Office of Minority Health: www.omhrc.gov

Center for Disease Control and Prevention: www.cdc.gov

Program outcomes

There are many outcomes that are expected from this class. First, there should be a greater focus on the health and prevention of aggravation in patients. Here, emphasis is on a holistic approach to the emotional, physical and mental conditions of the patients. Students should be aware of the basics of nursing ethics which are patient-centered. Thus, all activities that are geared towards the alleviation of pain or discomfort are important for the patient and the student.

The second outcome is that the care afforded to the patient must be effective and efficient and delivered with a combination of compassion and humanity. Thus, the class will enable students to focus on improving the quality of care they give by using the right facilities, equipment and other materials in the right manner for the right purposes.

The third outcome is that students must be aware of the evidence-based approaches to nursing care. This is especially so in the expectations that patients, their families and friends have of them. This information will be sourced by review of the numerous researches done by NINR.

The students will also be aware of the importance of seamless working through teams. The most important concept here is that nurses cannot and should not work in isolation. Therefore, the ethics that they learn should also be applicable to their team members so that the quality of care afforded a patient is of the highest quality guaranteed by collaboration.

The last outcome is that students must recognize that the patient is the focal point of care and is thus invaluable. This means that the patient should be consulted at all times in any decisions made. He/she should also be communicated to in the best way possible with empathy, courtesy and compassion.

Learner objectives

Specific learning objectives for the three-part class are listed below.

Ethical Decision-Making

Students will be in a position to:

• understand the code of ethics in regards to compassion and empathy
• describe the primary roles of nursing
• understand the responsibilities of nurses towards patients and other stakeholders in healthcare
• use various decision-making models
• develop nursing values

Nursing liability

Students will be in a position to:

• identify the different scenarios that can lead to malpractice and negligence
• carry out the responsibilities of nursing to the fullest without instances oversight
• learn the different consequences of malpractice and other liabilities

Prevention of liability

Students will be in a position to:

• develop friendly relationships with patients and their friends and families
• accurately document all the information including treatment data, evaluations and response of patients to care
• identify established standards for quality nursing care
• collaborate with other caregivers in affording patients the best care
• learn the different laws that govern the nursing practice

Domains of learning

There are three domains of learning, namely: cognitive, psychomotor and affective (Fadul, 2009). They deal with knowledge, skills and attitudes respectively. In the learning objectives for ethical decision-making, understanding the code of ethics in regards to compassion and empathy, and understanding the responsibilities of nurses towards patients and other stakeholders in healthcare represent the cognitive domain whereas describing the primary roles of nursing and developing nursing values are affective with using various decision-making models representing the psychomotor domain.

In the nursing liability part of the class, identifying the different scenarios that can lead to malpractice and negligence represents the affective domain, while carrying out the responsibilities of nursing to the fullest without instances oversight represents the psychomotor domain and learning the different consequences of malpractice and other liabilities representing the cognitive domain.

Finally, the prevention of liability part has the cognitive domain being represented by learning the different laws that govern the nursing practice, while psychomotor domain is represented by accurately documenting all the information including treatment data, evaluations and response of patients to care and collaborating with other caregivers in affording patients the best care. Identifying established standards for quality nursing care and developing friendly relationships with patients and their friends and families comprise the affective domain.

 

 

 

References

Benjamin, M. & Curtis, J. (2010). Ethics in Nursing: Cases, Principles, and Reasoning. New York: Oxford University Press

Butts, J. B. & Rich, K. (2013). Nursing Ethics: Across the Curriculum and Into Practice. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning

Fadul, J. A. (2009). Collective Learning: Applying distributed cognition for collective intelligence. The International Journal of Learning, 16(4)

Gastmans, C. (2013). Dignity-enhancing nursing care: A foundational ethical framework. Nursing Ethics, 20(2), 142–149.

Kress, G. & Selander, S. (2012). Multimodal design, learning and cultures of recognition. Internet and Higher Education, 15(1), 265–268.

National Institute of Nursing Research (NINR) (2013). Mission. National Institutes of Health. Retrieved March 18, 2014 from http://www.nih.gov/about/almanac/organization/NINR.htm

 

 

 

 

 

Healthcare finance

Financial Impact of Healthcare Reform on the Payer, Provider, and the Uninsured

The health care reforms introduced in the United States have brought in opportunities and challenges to the health care providers, the payers, and the uninsured. A good number of Americans do not have any form of health care insurance. The government is encouraging partnerships with the insurance companies to ensure that more people in this country are under one health insurance cover or another. This is through a series of cost sharing subsidies, through which new rules have been introduced to the health care insurance sector (Rosenbaum and Gruber 2010). The purpose of this is to create new markets for people to purchase health insurance. This will ensure that the reforms are well implemented. The reforms in the health care targets at ensuring that every person in the country is covered. The acts in place is meant to strengthen existing systems  of health care insurance coverage, and at the same time, build new and affordable insurance markets for the American people and their families who do not have employer coverage (Wilper 2011). At the same time, it is meant to cater for those without alternatives such as Medicaid or Medicare (Cleverley and Song 2011). The main aim of the act introduced in the health care sector, is to improve health care systems in the country, its value, efficiency, and quality, while at the same time, reducing the mass wastage and making the sector more diverse and accountable to the patients. This paper aims at exploring the implications of these reforms on the payers, providers, and the uninsured.

It is said that about 47 million non-elderly citizens in United States were not insured by 2012. The health care reforms main aim is to reduce the number of this uninsured Americans through the Affordable Care Act. This acts aims at providing a means through which people will get Medicaid or other subsidized overages to qualifying people with low incomes. Low income for some Americans, who make a large population, is the reason behind their lack of medical insurance cover. There are financial costs associated with being uninsured especially when one falls ill. Insurance cover is considered expensive and few people can afford to have it. Most of the people in this country obtain their insurance covers through their employers. However, not all employers give medical cover to their employees. Employers used administrative restrictions to limit the number of dependant and the ages for every employee. This leaves employees with older children with the burden for sourcing for other medical covers for these children (Gorin 2010). Some find it hard to cater for extra covers, and therefore these dependants are left with no health coverage. Children Health programs and Medicaid was designed to cover the very low-income children, but for adults and parents, their eligibility is limited. This leaves many of this people without any form of medical cover. Without cover, the uninsured face unaffordable bills when they fall ill and seek medical care. These bills can easily turn to debts since the uninsured are moderate or low-income earners and have little or no savings. These people pay their bills using the money they have (Gorin 2010). This means that the uninsured go through financial strains because of paying directly for medical attention than those under covers. They are also likely to have postponed medical bills.

Implications to the Uninsured

The health care reform, with the bill in place has many positive financial implications for the uninsured Americans. The reform aims at expanding the coverage to more and more people who are currently uninsured by way of expanding the Medicaid and health insurance eligibility. The reforms aims at helping people maintain health coverage and make insurance from the private sector more accessible and affordable. However, there is a downward side of the reform too. It is estimated that not all the uninsured will be covered. Immigrants who are not documented will be highly hit, as they will not be eligible for coverage. The illegal immigrants are banned from getting any cover (Institute of Medicine 2009).

When the act comes into effect, private insurance will be made more affordable as well as accessible to these uninsured people. It is expected that people with low incomes will be able to access subsidised policies from the private insurance providers through the health care insurance Market places. The act aims at penalizing the insurance companies that do not provide cover to eligible employees (Institute of Medicine 2009). The overall financial implication these reforms is that more and more uninsured people will be able to access covers at a lower rate, thus reducing their overall medical bills when they seek medical care. There will be a cost associated with taking the covers, but it will be minimal when compared to the cost they would incur when they or members of their family seek medical care.

Implications of the Reforms to the Providers

The provider of health care, which include the doctors, nurses, as well as the hospitals, will be hit financially on either side by the health reforms. Over the years, hospitals in this country have contended with financial pressures, partially because, the Medicare reimbursements always fail to cover the adequate cost of the care the hospitals provide. For, instance, it is estimated that Medicare pays approximately 93 cents per every one dollar worth of care (Moffiti, 2010). The private insurance companies reimburse the hospitals according to the amount they have from Medicare funds. To stay operational, the hospitals had to cut costs in all those areas they could. Many need millions to make improvements in information technology, physical plant, funds, and equipment to recruit and retain medical staff. The health care reforms will improve the conditions by shifting the focus from care model based on volumes, in which the medical officers and hospitals earn more when they provide medical attention to more people, to one in which pay is based on high quality. The reforms have been praised, as they will bring forth better remuneration for the physicians who for some time, have been underpaid and lack perverse incentives (Moffiti, 2010).

For the doctors and nurses, the Reforms will have substantial impacts, in that they will provide some limited reimbursement relief to them. For example, Medicare primary care started having impacts on those areas that receive ten percent bonus payment, with more doctors and nurses being sent to those areas (Maruthappu, Ologunde and Gunarajasingam 2013). This will be a significant consolation to the doctors and nurses, as they will be remunerated more and have better working conditions. The doctors were previous being rewarded depending on the number of patients they attend to, but with the reforms, reimbursements will be based on the quality of care given to the patients.

Implications on the Payers

The payers in the health plans will be the employees, employers, and the government on different ratios depending on the individual being covered. For the government, the financial implications are much positive. The government, both local and federal spend millions of dollars every year in providing cover to the uninsured. This cost will be reduced considerably, with the current reforms. The government also employs over nineteen million people whose total spending on health care is over and above 95 billion dollars (State Health Facts 2013).these people pay a “hidden tax” in terms of higher premiums, which the government uses to cater for the uninsured people. This burden will greatly reduce due to expansion in the insurance coverage. The government has been spending billions of dollars on uncompensated care. It will result in reforms in health insurance and generate vital savings for the local governments and the federal government. The government will have improved budgets, as deficits will be reduced, as less money will be used on the uninsured people. The base line is that the reforms will improve the budget of the states as well as those of the local governments (State Health Facts 2013).

With the new reforms in place, employers will have to make changes to their health plans, which will have some major financial implications. The cost effect will depend on a substantial number of factors, which includes employee demographic as well as health status, the employer’s size, administrators in place and insurance carriers, and stop loss deductibles (Maruthappu, Ologunde and Gunarajasingam, 2013). In general, the overall effect of this plan is an increase in the total cost for insurance cover. Employers will be affect differently by these reforms. For instance, those employers with more middle-aged workers get more exposure to the risks of cover than those who employ younger people. This is because of the requirement in the act, which states that coverage is up to 26 years, for the dependants of the employees (Evaluating the Governance Implications of Health Care Reform 2010). It is said that the employers who vary their premium deductions on family vs. single basis face more risks compared to those who vary their premiums based on, number of persons covered. This is because, employees under the coverage can at no extra cost, add the number of dependants (Chernew, Cutler, and Keenan 2010). It is also suggested that employers who do deductions that change based on the number of dependants manage the risks better. The employers will be longer be able to place limits on amounts of preventive services. It is suggested that removal of this limits need to be carefully evaluated if employers have them, because, some preventive services can be expensive (Maruthappu, Ologunde and Gunarajasingam, 2013).

To the insurance companies, the health plans are being challenged with determining how their membership will shift. The surrounding predictions on retention as well as new membership acquisition are unclear with experts expecting a shift in the midsized and small group to individual markets. This is a market exacerbated by over 30 million additional people who are expected to purchase policies. It is estimated that initially, majority of the shift will occur in the smallest of groups. With time, it is expected that large and medium groups will shift to this market as a result, of the cost savings, which are associated with offloading the benefits administration in the health sector (Wilper 2011). The larger groups will derive financial gains due to assess to the value of offering benefits to employees as opposed to drawbacks  of not giving health benefits to these employees such as increased absenteeism, decrease in performance and tardiness among others.

The employers cannot afford to have their employees who qualify coverage not to be covered. This is due to the penalties that the act instils on those who violate it. The penalties are stiff, for instance for non-coverage, an employer is liable to a fine of 2000 dollar per employee (Health Reform GPS 2011). This means that every employer should ensure that employees are enrolled in the minimum essential coverage under the employer-sponsorship plan.

Conclusion

Health care reforms have brought with them changes, which have financial implications to all the parties involved. This more so with the recent Affordable Care Act, whose main aim is to ensure that as many of the American people as possible get health coverage of one form or another. This is also meant to reduce the coverage burden of the government as a lot of money is used to cover the uninsured Americans. To be successful in the post reform insurance environment, the provider’s health plans have seen a need to manage their core drivers. The government is seen to be a beneficially of the reforms as it will save billions of dollars that it used to use in covering the uninsured. Measures are put in place to ensure that employers adhere to the requirement of the coverage; otherwise, penalties are levied against them. Millions of uninsured Americans will get financial reprieve when they get coverage as there medical bills will reduced drastically when they seek medical care. Doctors and nurses will benefit from the reforms in that they will get better remunerations based on the quality of care they provide as opposed to the number of patients they attend to daily. The affordable care act, which is the basis of the reforms, is highly transformational, and many implementations financial challenges are expected on the way. However, the opportunities that it will bring are unparalleled.

 

References

Cleverley, W. O & Song, P. H. (2011). Essentials of health care finance. Sudbury, Mass: Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Chernew, M, Cutler, D, and Keenan, P. (2010). Increasing Health Insurance Costs and the Decline in Insurance Coverage. Health Services Research, 40(4), 1021-1039.

Evaluating the Governance Implications of Health Care Reform. (2010, January 5). Mondaq Business Briefing, p. I2.

Gorin, S. H. (2010). The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, Cost Control, and the Battle for Health Care Reform. Health & Social Work, 35(3), 163-166.

Health Reform GPS. (2011, April). Health Reform GPS: Navigating the Implementation Process. Retrieved March 14, 2014, from http://www.healthreformgps.org

Institute of Medicine. (2009). America’s Uninsured Crisis: Consequences for Health and Health Care.. Institute of Medicine 1(1), 60-63.

Maruthappu, M., Ologunde, R., & Gunarajasingam, A. (2013). Is Health Care a Right? Health Reforms in the USA and their Impact upon the Concept of Care. Annals of Medicine and Surgery, 2(1), 15-17.

Moffiti, R. (2010, June 11). Obamacare: Impact on Doctors of Health Care Reform. The Heritage Foundation. Retrieved March 16, 2014, from http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2010/05/obamacare-impact-on-doctors

Rosenbaum S, and Gruber J. (2010). Buying health care, the individual mandate, and the Constitution. N Eng J Medical, 363(1), 401–3.

State Health Facts. (2013, January 14). State Activity around Expanding Medicaid under the Affordable Care Act. Retrieved March 14, 2014 from http://www.kff.org/medicaid/state-indicator/state-activity-around-expanding-medicaid-under-the-affordable-care-act/

Wilper, E. 2011. Health Insurance and Mortality in US Adults. American Journal of Public Health, 99(12) 2289-2295.