Making Sense of Organization
Typically, an organization is considered an assembly of people who work together in order to accomplish common goals through the division of labor (Schein 2010). It provides a means of utilizing individual strength in a group to accomplish more than can be achieved by the aggregate efforts of the members of the group working individually. In market economies, business organizations are formed with the primary aim of profiting by delivering a service or a good to the end-customers (Jones 2012). The purpose of this paper is to address the extent to which people are subordinated to systems and organizations in the 21st century. Organizations comprise of a number of entities and making sense of them requires us to scrutinize them through different theoretical viewpoints as well as our own perceptual lens. As such, this paper discusses what an organization is, why it is there, how it works and why it works from dissimilar albeit interrelated theoretical viewpoints which include historical, sociological, political, psychological, cultural and symbolic.
Historical Perspective
The nature of present-day organizations is founded on the concepts first developed at the time of the Industrial Revolution during the final years of the 19th and early years of 20th centuries (Mastenbroek 2011). What was most significant was the theory of Max Weber, a German sociologist who maintained that bureaucracies, staffed by bureaucrats characterized the perfect organizational form. He based his model bureaucracy on absolute and legal authority, order and logic. In effect, the bureaucracy of Weber was designed to function like a machine. This is primarily because the business organization was arranged into specific parts/functions, each working in concert with the other parts/functions forming a streamlined process. There was an impersonal and indifferent attitude towards the workers within the organization, since personal aspects of human behavior were deemed as a likely detriment to the effectiveness of the system. Moreover, from the historical viewpoint, four important managerial functions characterized effective and successful organizations (Weick 2012). These include: Planning, which involves thinking before acting; organizing, which entail establishing procedures and policies that regulate the behavior of staff members; staffing, which involves the recruitment of relevant workforce, and lastly; controlling and this entails motivating the employees to pursue the objectives and goals of the business organization (Mastenbroek 2011).
In general, from the historical perspective, organizations were considered as closed systems which were isolated and autonomous from the outside world. However, later theories in the 1960s favored more humanistic and holistic ideologies. Having recognized that the traditional or historical theory did not take into consideration a number of environmental influences affecting the effectiveness of organizations, most business organizations began to embrace an open-system outlook of organizations (Daft 2012). The term open-systems reflected the belief that every organization is unique and thus, must be structured to accommodate unique opportunities and problems. Traditional or historical bureaucratic organizations did not succeed in environments where markets or technologies were evolving rapidly, and also fell short in realizing the significance of regional cultural influences in motivating employees (Daft 2012).
Sociological Perspective
From the sociological perspective, an organization is understood as a coordinated, planned and purposeful activity of people to compile or construct a common intangible or tangible product. This perspective distinguishes organizations into formal and informal organizations. Formal organizations include government agencies and business corporations. Formal organizations normally operate in a deliberate manner to achieve a complex goal. Sociology of organizations focuses on structure and objectives, the relationship between the organization and its environment, interactions among the organization members and among organizations, and the social meaning or significance of the organizations (Godwyn & Gittel 2012). Handel (2012) pointed out that organizational models are essential in understanding how organizations operate effectively. The two main models are bureaucratic and collectivist organizations. The notion of bureaucratic organizations was formulated by Max Weber, who observed that Western society necessitated bureaucracy: a type of formal organization. It was believed to be the most efficient form of organization and had the following characteristics according to Handel (2012): (i) Written rules and regulations that maximize bureaucratic efficiency and operations, (ii) a highly defined hierarchy of authority whereby people higher in the hierarchy order those who are lower, (iii) bureaucratic authority that rests in different positions or offices, but not in individuals, (iv) workers employed are recruited basing on technical know-how as well as on how they perform on entry examinations, (v) impersonal and formal record keeping and communications within the organization, and (vi) a compensated administrative workforce. Formal organizations include corporations such as Tesco, British Airways, and all organizations that have a well defined hierarchical structure with well established rules and regulations.
On other hand, an informal organization is a network of social and personal relationships such as friendships or alliances that come about as people associate with others within the work environment. It is not dependent on a hierarchical structure that is common with corporations and large-scale companies. They have loose structures and individuals can become members freely (Handel 2012). An example of an informal organization is a football team such as Chelsea FC, where a manual worker, a manager and a managing director are all on the same team, and the relationships between them is very different than in the workplace. There is no theoretical boss.
Political Perspective
The political aspect can be viewed as one that stems from within the organization – internal –, and one stemming from outside the organization – external. Internal politics: Child (2011), stated that political behavior within an organization are activities that are not necessary as part of an individual’s formal role in an organization. However, they influence, or attempt to influence the distribution of disadvantages and advantages in an organization. This definition includes all the positive and negative effects of politicking within an organization. An example of a negative effect of politicking within an organization is the National Health Service (NHS) scandal involving Stafford hospital where several patients died due to negligence. Politicking at Mid Staffordshire NHS Foundation Trust resulted to nurses and care staff providing poor standards of care to patients, and this in turn caused avoidable deaths to a number of patients at Stafford hospital.
Generally, political behavior within the work setting may be considered as an attempt to derive on an individual’s power bases. In essence, from the political perspective, organizations can be seen as political systems where relationships of interests, conflict and power are common (Child 2011). The politics of an organization is most lucidly evident in the conflicts as well as power play which at times occupy center stage. It is also manifest in the numerous interpersonal intrigues which provide diversions in the flow of organizational activity (Tushman 2004).
In most organizations, the common political relationships are with regard to interests, conflict and power. Interests –there are three dissimilar types; First one are task interests, and they are linked with the work that an individual has to carry out; Second are career interests, and they are independent of the work being performed, and; third are extramural interests where one acts towards the relation to both career and work. Conflicts often arise when interests collide, and they could be inter-personal and/or personal. Conflicts could be between coalitions and rival groups, and may be built into roles, attitudes, scarcity of resources and stereotypes. Power generally serves as the means of resolving conflicts of interests. Sources of power include formal authority, control of decision powers, control of boundaries, control of scarce resources, control of knowledge and information, and control of technology (Spicer 2009).
External politics: External political conditions have a great influence on business organizations, and it helps in allocating power within a society and to enforce laws. Typically, the political system in which the business organization operates most importantly determines the long-term security and stability of the future of that organization. For instance, Britain’s national government could add stability by maintaining a powerful defense force. Nevertheless, political mechanisms may also hinder the success of the organization by burdening it with rules such as employee rights laws, taxes and regulations (Tushman 2004). Moreover, the political environment in a country plays an important in handling important issues that have substantial effects on the organization. For instance, the government of United Kingdom bailed out some business organizations to prevent their collapse due to the 2007 – 2008 economic recession. This bailout was in part because of the political climate in the country which compelled the government to bail out some large and very important companies.
Psychological Perspective
According to Chmiel (2008), psychology within an organization connotes the relationship between employees and work. Understanding an organization from the psychological perspective entails identifying the attitudes and behaviors of employees at the workplace, and this helps to understand how those attitudes and behaviors can be improved through training programs, hiring practices as well as feedback and management systems (Doyle 2010). In addition, understanding organizational psychology helps to formulate ways that will increase workplace productivity as well as related issues including the mental and physical wellbeing of workers. Psychology in the organization can be viewed in different ways.
Chmiel (2008) stated that industrial organizational (I/O) psychology has two distinct aspects. The first one is industrial aspect or personnel psychology. Personnel working in this area generally assess the characteristics of employees and then match these workers to jobs in which they are likely to do effectively. Other crucial functions on the industrial aspect of I/O psychology are measuring job performance, employee training, and developing job performance standards. The organizational aspect of psychology focuses largely on understanding the way organizations affect the behavior of an individual. Factors such as organizational structures, management styles, social norms, as well as role expectations can influence individual behavior in an organizatioN (Arnold & Silvester 2005). The human factors of psychology focuses on the impact of tasks and equipment on employee performance (Arnold & Silvester 2005). Typically, industrial organizational psychologists conduct a number of tasks such as studying employee behavior and attitude, evaluating organizations, and performing leadership training.
Cultural Perspective
In the 21st century, people continue to be subordinated to systems and organizations in different ways. From the cultural perspective, this subordination entails employees being subordinated to the organizational culture; a communicatively created and historically based system of values, assumptions, and interpretive frameworks that constrain and guide the members of the organization as they carry out their roles and tackle the challenges of their environment (Lim 2008). The five aspects of organizational culture are symbols, artifacts, patterns of behavior, beliefs and values, and finally, the basic underlying assumptions. Symbols are signs that have meanings greater than themselves and they usually express much more than their intrinsic content. Symbols could be a seating arrangement, flag, office, building, phrase, policy, word or even a logo. For a company like Mercedes-Benz, its three-pointed star logo is one of the most significant symbols of the company. Artifacts are an essential aspect and comprise nonmaterial and material patterns and objects that unintentionally or intentionally communicate information regarding the company’s values, beliefs and assumptions and generally the ways of doing things (Johnson 2012). From my experience in my company, these include jokes, jargon, myths, brochures, internal memos, annual reports, celebrations and ceremonies.
Patterns of behavior connote routinized activities that cause workers to continue doing things for instance behavioral norms, rituals, and rights, which through repetition communicate information regarding the company’s beliefs, values, assumptions, technology, and ways of doing things (Lim 2008). In my company, these include management practices for instance conducting performance appraisals, trainings and holding staff meetings. With regard to beliefs and values, beliefs are the consciously held cognitive views regarding reality and truth, whereas values are conscious wants or desires. In my company, these include moral and ethical codes, and ideologies. The basic underlying assumptions consist of potent, comprehensive but out-of-conscious system of perceptions, values and beliefs, and these include the view of competitors, customers and openness to technology (Lim 2008).
Culture can also be viewed as an environmental influence emanating from the geographical location in which the company operates. Cultural influences are very critical in any organization. For instance, cultural values often determine views regarding what is good or bad, wrong or right, and trivial or important. Organizations in the United Kingdom will most probably be influenced by values of democracy, individualism, freedoms and individual rights, and a puritan work ethic. Additionally, local and regional values will affect organizations. Employees and consumers, for instance, in England and Scotland are more likely to be ideologically conservative unlike those in Wales or Northern Island (Johnson 2012).
Symbolic Perspective
Identities within organizations serve essential functions for the members of the organization as a collective. Symbols within organizations could be artifacts or physical objects, group or individual behavior, or verbal expressions (Bailey 2009). Symbols are commonly used to represent the identity of organizations. The identity of the organization can have a greater influence when symbols are used as its proxy. This is because symbolic proxies in general make it much easier for employees/members to not only articulate, but also externalize and share identity claims and beliefs (Harquail 2006). The tenuous and continuously changing nature of organizations complicates the relationship between individuals and organizations. As such, symbols provide to both organizations and individuals an effective and non-verbal language that could help in clarifying this relational complexity (Pratt 2009). In my company, the distinct symbols include: anecdotes, myths and stories which are verbal; physical artifacts and logos which are material in nature; and ritualized events and ceremonies which are actions. All these phenomena express the deeper levels of meaning which go beyond the object or simple action that is involved since they inform us about the character and nature of the identity of the organization.
Conclusion
In conclusion, making sense of organizations indeed entails examining them through a number of theoretical perspectives and through our own perceptual lens as well. The different perspectives including historical, sociological, political, psychological, cultural and symbolic provide a lucid understanding of what an organization is, why they exist, why and how they work. In general, they describe what characterizes an organization in the 21st century. The historical perspective for instance indicates that prior to 1960s, organizations were bureaucratic closed-systems, but due to the limitations of the closed-systems, the open-system approach was adopted. Additionally, from the historical standpoint, four key managerial functions characterized effective and successful organizations. They are planning, organizing, staffing and controlling (Weick 2012).
From the sociological standpoint, sociology of organizations focuses on structure and objectives, the relationship between the organization and its environment, interactions among the organization members and among organizations, and the social meaning or significance of the organizations (Godwyn & Gittel 2012). This point of view distinguishes organizations into formal and informal organizations. Formal organizations are those that have a well defined hierarchical structure with well established rules and regulations such as British Airways or Tesco. Conversely, informal organizations are not dependent on a hierarchical structure typical with corporations. They have loose structures and individuals can become members freely, and an example is a football club such as Chelsea FC (Handel 2012). The political outlook can be seen as one that stems from either within or outside the organization. Internal organizational politics allow one to consider organizations as political systems where relationships of interests, conflict and power are common. Political behavior within an organization can lead to positive and negative effects. An example of negative effects of politicking within an organization is the NHS scandal that involved Stafford hospital where several patients died due to negligence that arose as a result of unconstructive politics within the organization. Political behavior that emanates from outside the organization has an immense influence on organizations, and helps in allocating power within a society and to enforce laws.
Getting to understand an organization from the psychological perspective requires identifying the attitudes and behaviors of employees at the workplace, and this helps to comprehend how those attitudes and behaviors can be improved through training programs, hiring practices as well as feedback and management systems (Doyle 2010). The cultural perspective largely focuses on the organizational culture, and the five essential aspects of organizational culture are symbols, artifacts, patterns of behavior, beliefs and values, and lastly, the basic underlying assumption Culture can also be viewed as an environmental influence emanating from the geographical location in which the company operates. Finally, with regard to symbolic perspective, symbols within organizations could be artifacts or physical objects, group or individual behavior, or verbal expressions and they are commonly used to represent the identity of organizations (Bailey 2009).
Reference
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Bailey, C. 2009. Culture in Business: Using a Symbolic Approach to Connect Organizational and Corporate Cultures. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
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Chmiel, N. 2008. An Introduction to Work and Organizational Psychology: A European Perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press
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Harquail, C. 2006. Making Use of Organizational Identity: Icons as Symbolic Identity Proxies. Retrieved from http://authenticorganizations.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/Making-Use-of-OI-symbolic-proxies1.pdf
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Pratt, M. 2009. Symbols as a Language of Organizational Relationships. Retrieved from http://ie.technion.ac.il/Home/Users/anatr/Symb-Relating-FINAL-Text.pdf
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Spicer, C. 2009. Organizational Public Relations: A Political Perspective. Birmingham: Cengage Learning
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Weick, K. 2012. Making Sense of the Organization. Cambridge: John Wiley & Sons
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