Japan’s perspective on Nanjing Massacre

Japan’s perspective on Nanjing Massacre

Introduction

            Nanjing Massacre dates back to December 13^th 1937, surveys indicated that Nanjing Massacre was also referred to as the Rape of Nanking where war rape and mass murder were carried out in the course of six weeks. Japanese soldiers captured Nanjing City which was formerly under the control of Republic of China[1]. The relationships between China and Japan have been cold basing on the Nanjing massacre. Historical scars have influenced the relationships between the two nations, which are critical in the powers of the East Asia.

Main Body

            Evidence collected in the region argues that there was information enough to indicate that Japan had carried out the ill attacks, although Japan has never officially admitted committing any offence. There are evidence sources from the eye witnesses, documentary evidence, photographic evidence and some of Japanese soldiers admitted participation in the attacks[2]. Japanese revisionalists categorically resisted any involvements in the atrocities and war crimes.

Recent publications from the Japanese mayor of Nagoya city argued that there are high probabilities that Nanjing massacre is just an imagination, and that it never happened, the mayor went ahead to argue that the combats that took place in the region was convectional and within the limits. China and Japan are always contesting basing of on diversity of national interest, fog of war and on issues of Japanese nationalists.

Nanjing disputes over the decades have generated international disputes and to some extent generated to nationalist tensions[3]. Accounts by the Japanese nationalist-revisionist categorically deny any forms of war crimes. Evidence was collected from the survivors of the tragic events, an indication that militarism leftist critics are mainly based on the accounts delivered by the Chinese people. Japan argued that there are high chances that the crimes are crafted against Japan basing on manipulation and one-sidedness of the informants[4].

Nanjing massacre’s Debate in 1930s and 1940s

Japanese revisionist has generated diverse debates in domestic politics in Japan, and some of the arguments are controversial. It has been noted that materials from the Japanese Language historiographical has been influential in sophisticated and diverse research on the massacre. Surveys argues that in the time of war, the government of Japan never allowed news media during the war, a move that led to the general public in Japan unaware of what was happening in Nanjing. Japanese government covered war crimes and Nanjing Massacre that were committed by the military. Ultranationalists in Japan went ahead to deny Nanjing massacre.

The Japanese government denied negative depictions and dehumanizing effects that were carried out by the army. A novel written by Tatsuzo Ishikawa by the name ‘Living Soldier’ was seized from the market in 1938 after the Japanese government learnt that the book was disturbing order and peace, Tatsuzo Ishikawa was served with four months in jail.

In 1943, another confusion and controversy arose after another writer by the name George Orwel published a book by the name ‘Looking Back on the Spanish War’; the book argued that the same people who carried out the Nanjing Massacre were the same people in the front line denying the actions. Nanjing massacre even drew the attention of the United Kingdom Government; there were high doubts that Japanese government had a positive role in the massacre that happened in 1937. It is said that the Japanese solders butchered and raped people in the Chinese cities. Japanese Civilians came to understand on Nanjing Massacre after the Far East International Military Tribunal (Tokyo Trial) and on the Nanjing Trial, the Japanese society was shocked with the news of the Nanjing Massacre[5].

Nanjing massacre’s Debate in1950s – 1980s

Yoshie Hotta in 1950s published historical fictions about Nanjing atrocities, in which the Japanese government was categorically against, arguing that there were high chances that the atrocities were never committed, and that they were just allegations. Tomio Hora in 1967 published Nankin Jiken, in which he attacked the denial of the revisionist on the Nanjing massacre. It was noted that the research was carried out in the period involved in the research of the American War in Vietnam.

Japan and China since the Nanjing massacre has been having poor diplomatic relations, the year 1972 was involved in serious talks on the issues although the statements of the Chinese Government were refuted by the diplomats from Japan. Japan argued that the Nanjing massacre atrocities were exaggerated and tuned to support China, in that the evidence obtained was sourced from anecdotal evidence and personal testimony evidence[6]. Japan also attacked the photographs and burial records that were presented as part of the evidence in Tokyo War Crime Court.

Japanese government argued that the Chinese government fabricated the evidence to suite their preferences against Japan[7]. Japanese government also argued that the Chinese government incorrectly attributed and artificially manipulated issues of the Nanjing massacre. Surveys indicated that Katsuichi Honda in the 1970s was sent by the Japanese government to China to research on Imperial Army and how they conducted themselves in times of war[8]. Honda did comprehensive research on atrocities committed in the Asahi Shimbun which was similar in nature to that of Nanjing Massacre. Asahi Shimbun atrocities in the World War II were carried out by the Japanese army, which were commonly referred to as the ‘Chugoku no Tabi’ signaling ‘travels in China’.

Articles published by Katsuichi Honda were received with hostility on the part of the Japanese government. Japan refuted the claims by referring to the research and documentaries done by Akira Suzuki on the Nanjing massacre Phantom and on the research done by Shichihei Yamamoto which was a response to publication to the research done by Katsuichi Honda[9].

Saburo Lenaga a well known author of books in Japan sued ministry of education, citing harassment by the Japanese government, in that he was being forced to alter the contents of his publications by the government of Japan. Lenaga argued that the government of Japan was violating and interfering with his freedom of expression, the court’s decision was in the favor of Lenaga in 1997. Controversies on the way history was carried out in Japanese schools generated heated debates in 1982-1986, in that issues of the Nanjing massacre were categorically missing from all the history books in Japanese schools, although the massacre practically happened[10].

Surveys indicated that earlier history school books reflected on the Nanjing massacre particularly at the junior high schools, although it was cancelled later and removed from the school books in the in the elementary school. Books published by Kyoiku Shuppan and Nihon Shoseki all in the junior schools reflected that Nanjing massacre had more than 42,000 Chinese people were killed, mainly women and children. Ministry of Education in Japan managed to remove the extract showing the number of people that were killed in the Nanjing massacre.

Ministry of Education in Japan in 1982 were involved in vigorous campaigns in reframing the way history was presented in schools, particularly focusing at the issues that happened during the World War II. Surveys indicated that books involved in history were reworded to express different feelings on issues of Sino-Japanese War[11]. It was noted that instead of using the words aggression, the books were reworded to indicate ‘advancing in and out China’; which was a term expressing disapproval of the Nanjing massacre.

Japanese government expressed Nanjing massacre as simply as a minor accident which was initiated by the frustration that was felt by the soldiers in Japan after they encountered substantial resistance from the armies of China. Strong protests soon occurred in Asian nations, in which Japan was the immediate nation to react. Reflecting on 1990s, things started to change with some of the forces in the Japanese government calling for outright reconciliation with Asian nations by taking responsibility of the war. Three prime ministers acknowledged the need of reconciliation.

Hosokawa Morihiro in 1993 after taking over the office as the prime minister of Japan through the Non-Liberal Democratic Party government, other prime ministers with the same sentiments were Murayama Tomiichi and Hata Tsutomu. The three prime ministers argued that Japan was aggressive to expand its territories in Asia in the 1930s and 1940s. Taking at sentiments made by Murayama Tomiichi, he categorically conveyed deep regret for what happened in the aggression and colonial rule in Japan.

School books were later re-written to express the feelings of Japan on the war, and that the government of Japan was responsible for the things that happened during the war. In 1997, it was noted that history books particularly for use in the junior high schools indicated that more than two hundred thousand people were massacred at the Nanking capture, all these were carried out by the Japanese military[12].

Controversies were still in place expressing disapproval on the number of people that lost their lives in the Nanjing massacre, there were a number of reports that indicated that Chinese government inflated the figures on the number of people that died in the war. Ikuhiko Hata published a book expounding on Nanjing massacre, and that the number of people killed were around thirty eight thousands people and that only civilians and Prisoners of War (POWs) were included, he continued to argue that the soldiers involved in the massacre were not counted, since they took part in the battlefield.

Reflecting in the 1980s, the interest of China argued that more than three hundred thousand people were killed, information that coincided with the details at the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal. New evidence came to light in Japan mainly sourced from the private journals which had interviewed ordinary soldiers and Japanese generals. Records also showed the official units on the soldiers involved in the war. Japanese veterans admitted witnessing or being involved in the Nanjing atrocities.

‘Fabrication of Nanjing massacre’ book published by Masaaki Tanaka did not support sentiments that Nanjing massacre was pre-planned and that the massacre was as a result of the Sino-Japanese war, this was an indication that Japanese government had no issues with the Chinese government, and that the controversies were provoked by the Sino-Japanese war. Fijio Masayuki in 1986 acting as the Education Minister in Japan argued on dismissing ‘Rape of Nanking’ citing that rape was a side effect of the war. The film reflected on the ‘Rape of Nanking’ in 1987 was not submittal on which country organized the war, and what the main reasons for the war were based on political superiority[13].

Nanjing massacre’s Debate in 1990s

Issues of controversy on the Nanjing massacre were resolved in the 1990s. This was followed by Japan and China accepting that atrocities occurred in the war, although there has been some controversies on the actual numbers of people that were massacred, and that the geographical area could not have been used to represent the number of people massacred, although most publications cited that around three hundred thousand and four hundred thousand people were killed in the massacre. The figures of the dead people were obtained from the burial records from the Chinese side and the disposed bodies in Japan as a result of the massacre[14].

High ranking politicians and some of the cabinet ministers in Japan denied any forms of atrocities believed to have been committed in World War II by the Japanese army. General Nagano Shigeto was one of the influential members involved in denying Nanjing massacre. Shigeto was the justice minister in 1994, and previously occupied senior positions in the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force and he was a war veteran in the World War II. In a newspaper interview, he argued that Nanjing massacre was a mere fabrication, and that the act never occurred[15].

Shintano Ishihara a Tokyo Governor during a Playboy magazine interview argued that Nanjing massacre was just a story that was organized the Chinese government. He continued to assert that the lie had an influence in tarnishing the image of Japan, the lie is said to have been organized after protests happened in South Korea and in China.

Houston based Deputy Japanese Consul argued that Nanjing massacre was just a fabrication and that it never occurred; this happened in the 1990s after protests broke out rejecting the actions of the Japanese government by the Chinese American governments, the protests happened in Diao Yu Tai.

The government of Japan in refuting the Nanjing massacre came together and formed a research group with the mandates of proving that Nanjing massacre never occurred, and that China had framed Japan on the atrocities. The group was known as the ‘Nanjing Incident Research Group’. The group has been involved in research both from the Japanese government and the Chinese government with testimonials and archival materials, in showing exactly what happened at the Nanjing massacre.

Tomiichi Murayama in 1995, by then the Japanese prime minister offered condolences to the people who were involved in the Nanjing massacre. The apology was formal and clear and that he regretted the actions of Japanese soldiers during the war. He continued to apologize to the Chinese government arguing that Japan had made the wrong approach in expanding its territories. Murayama also apologized to the Asian nations on the sufferings that it created to the parties involved in the Nanjing massacre. His heartfelt apology was directed to the survivors, friends and relatives of the people who suffered as a result of the Nanjing massacre[16].

Nippon Budokan in Tokyo was the venue where apologies by the Japanese senior people in the government made their assertions. Emperor Akihito of Japan and Murayama made mourning statements to all those people who were hurt in one way or another by the Nanjing massacre. The leaders argued that such occurrences were highly regretted and that they would never occur again. Western audience on Nanjing massacre was highlighted after Iris Chang published a book on rape and massacre in Nanjing. The 1997 publication was released to the general public in Western world, although the copy was met with hostility from Japan, the accuracy of the book was flawed by both the Chinese government and the Japanese government[17]. The Western world was concerned on what happened in Nanjing.

Nanjing massacre’s Debate in 2000s and 2010s

There are no active debates groups on Nanjing massacres in the recent decade, killings over the years have been denied by the Right-wing nationalists. The main controversy is placed at the number of people who lost their lives in the massacre. Japanese government is not comfortable with using the word massacre, arguing that the word carries the wrong image on Japan. Controversies are on the civilian killed, rapes that took place, suspected guerrillas and the prisoners of wars.

Burial records at the Chung Shan Tang and Red Swastika Society were not examined at the Nanjing trials and Tokyo Trials hence questioning their authenticity. There are diverse personal testimonies from the Japanese soldiers on killings and rapes, but the figures are unclear and disputed by the Japanese government and the Chinese government[18]. Japanese government strongly argues that anecdotal evidence is not enough in justifying the number of rapes that happened during the Nanjing war, in the sense that the evidence is diluted with propagandas mainly from the Chinese people involved in the personal testimonials.

Debate in the public limelight is still live and continues to generate new controversies, massacre denialists are mainly journalists and academicians with a link to Tsukurukai. The views of the massacre denialists are linked to right wing publishers and conservative publishers sound examples identifying with Sankei Shuppan and Bungei Shunju among others. There are a number of organizations in Japan involved in colleting and publishing materials on the Nanjing massacre to determine exactly what happened at that time[19]. Minister of Education in Japan in 2004 expressed the need of overcoming the ill accounts that portray the history of Japan.

Critically reflecting on 2005, a book published by Fusosha, it generated violent riots in China after the book was approved by the ministry of education in Japan. Fusocha was attached to the right wing publishers. In 2007, one hundred lawmakers of LDP (Liberal Democratic Party) argued that Japan was not connected with the Nanjing massacre and that the allegations were framed since there were no substantial evidence proving mass killings and mass rapes, the lawmakers argued that China was using the Nanjing massacre for political fame and advertisement.   Japan and China should bury the hatchet and develop mechanisms of working together in the twenty first century as the global business becomes more and more integrated, since the future is more important than the past.

Conclusion

            Japanese government argues that even if the deaths were documented, there were no substantial records showing the right number of rape cases that occurred at that time, which makes the Japanese government disassociate itself with issues of mass rape. Massacre denialists on Nanjing massacre argues that most of the people who were killed were not civilians, and that they were suspected guerrillas and prisoners of wars, who were killed legitimately, hence the word massacre is inappropriate and intended to tarnish the image of Japan[20].

 

References

Chang, Iris. The Chinese in America: A Narrative History. City of Westminster London, England: Penguin Books, 2004.

Chang, Iris. The Rape Of Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust Of World War II. New York: Basic Books, 2012.

Chang, Ying-Ying. The Woman Who Could Not Forget: Iris Chang Before and Beyond The Rape of Nanking. Canterbury, New Zealand: Pegasus, 2012.

Hicks, George. The Comfort Women: Japan’s Brutal Regime of Enforced Prostitution in the Second World War. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2007.

Honda, Katsuichi. The Nanjing Massacre. Armonk, New York: M E Sharpe Inc, 2009.

Rabe, John. The Good Man Of Nanking: The Diaries of John Rabe. New York: Vintage, 2000.

 

 

[1] Iris Chang, The Chinese in America: A Narrative History. City of Westminster London, England: Penguin Books, 2004, pp. 12.

[2] Rabe John, The Good Man Of Nanking: The Diaries of John Rabe. New York: Vintage, 2000, pp. 105.

 

[3] Iris Chang, The Rape Of Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust Of World War II. New York: Basic Books, 2012, pp. 19.

[4] Ying-Ying Chang, The Woman Who Could Not Forget: Iris Chang Before and Beyond The Rape of Nanking. Canterbury, New Zealand: Pegasus, 2012, pp. 400.

 

[5] Iris Chang, The Rape Of Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust Of World War II. New York: Basic Books, 2012, pp. 219.

[6] Iris Chang, The Chinese in America: A Narrative History. City of Westminster London, England: Penguin Books, 2004, pp. 300.

[7] Iris Chang, The Rape Of Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust Of World War II. New York: Basic Books, 2012, pp. 189.

[8] Katsuichi Honda, The Nanjing Massacre. Armonk, New York: M E Sharpe Inc, 2009, pp 232.

[9] Katsuichi Honda, The Nanjing Massacre. Armonk, New York: M E Sharpe Inc, 2009, pp 294.

[10] George Hicks, The Comfort Women: Japan’s Brutal Regime of Enforced Prostitution in the Second World War. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2007, pp. 241.

[11] Ying-Ying Chang, The Woman Who Could Not Forget: Iris Chang Before and Beyond The Rape of Nanking. Canterbury, New Zealand: Pegasus, 2012, pp. 229.

[12] Iris Chang, The Rape Of Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust Of World War II. New York: Basic Books, 2012, pp. 209.

[13] Rabe John, The Good Man Of Nanking: The Diaries of John Rabe. New York: Vintage, 2000, pp. 285.

[14] Ying-Ying Chang, The Woman Who Could Not Forget: Iris Chang Before and Beyond The Rape of Nanking. Canterbury, New Zealand: Pegasus, 2012, pp. 199.

[15] Iris Chang, The Chinese in America: A Narrative History. City of Westminster London, England: Penguin Books, 2004, pp. 251.

[16] George Hicks, The Comfort Women: Japan’s Brutal Regime of Enforced Prostitution in the Second World War. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2007, pp. 87.

[17] Iris Chang, The Chinese in America: A Narrative History. City of Westminster London, England: Penguin Books, 2004, pp. 299.

 

[18] Iris Chang, The Rape Of Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust Of World War II. New York: Basic Books, 2012, pp. 302.

[19] George Hicks, The Comfort Women: Japan’s Brutal Regime of Enforced Prostitution in the Second World War. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2007, pp. 201.

 

[20] Ying-Ying Chang, The Woman Who Could Not Forget: Iris Chang Before and Beyond The Rape of Nanking. Canterbury, New Zealand: Pegasus, 2012, pp. 200.

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