Management research methods individual assessment

Grounded theory

In the book ‘Research methods for business students´ Saunders, Thornhill and Lewis presents their collaborative opinions emanating from empirical and qualitative researches. Their collaborative ideas regarding the paradigms of underlying premises on which the grounded theory was formulated are comprehensively presented to the reader (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill 2012). Furthermore, it is by reading the book that the advantages and disadvantages embedded in the applicability and consequent use of theory are exhibited. The research findings presented by the three authors support that the grounded theory is a pertinent tool in conducting business researches thus triggering a further analysis of the theory. This is because the grounded theory presents a systematic methods which reflect those used in social sciences. The theory also emphasizes on the need for data analysis in the case of a quantitative research thus it becomes equally applicable to business related researches. One major reason why researchers prefer the theory is because of its consistency regarding presentation of findings and analysis.

Furthermore it is appreciated that the grounded theory disqualifies previous theories that were used in both business researches and social sciences thus there is much support that the theory is modernistic. Given the fact that technological advancement has boosted not only the level of researches but also the quality of the data collected thus the grounded theory presents a much clearer picture of the actual presentation of field data. Moreover the ability to interface with modern research tools makes the theory preferable over classical theories that might not fit effectively where findings have been extracted from electronic equipment such as computers. Intuitively, the theory presents a different approach to research as it will be elucidated in this dissertational paper.

Thornberg and Charmaz, (2012) support that the grounded theory defies traditional rules of conducting research which used to emphasize on the need to formulate hypotheses before conducting the actual research. While using the grounded theory, data collection supersedes formation of hypotheses while at the same time the theory states variety of data collection techniques that are inclusive of technology aided data collection instruments. Using the data collected, key indicators or points can be serialized and marked with codes. The codes are extracted from texts and are further grouped into concepts so as to increase their precision as well as workability. The concepts guide the researcher into forming categories which become the basis upon which theories are instigated. This illustration emphasizes that grounded theory supports the use of reverse engineered hypotheses (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill 2012). This is unlike classical theories which require the researchers to use traditional research models whereby the researcher selects a theoretical framework after which a given research is forced to fit into the framework chosen.

By definition, grounded theory is a method of research that presents a systematic collection and generation of alternative theories using both deductive and inductive data collected from the field.  One of the goals that led to the development of the grounded theory is supported by the need by researchers to formulate hypotheses after they gain an incisive view of their sample data which then guides the development of conceptual ideas and thus specific hypothesis can be made to relate to the research findings (Thornberg & Charmaz 2012.). Another goal that can be interpreted as being an advantage of the grounded theory is the ability of the theory to discover the main concerns that regards to the researchers desire to resolve a certain social problem. This is because with the grounded theory, a researcher is made to answer the question of “What is going on?” and by so doing the researcher makes plans to identifying the societal problems that need to be resolved. This attribute also makes the theory applicable to business research because it answers a pertinent question that is essential in developing novel business ideologies or transforming the currently existing business models.

Unlike classical theories, contemporary business and social models supported by the grounded theory has been associated with the use of empirical research (Savin-Baden & Major 2013). As a result, the theory distances itself from focusing on the truth but on the quality of the empirical research conducted. Therefore the bottom-line that defines the use of the grounded theory is defined by the time at which hypotheses are formulated. The researcher is not obligated to forming hypotheses prior to the research because of the need to use preconceived data to formulate viable hypothesis and theories (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill 2012). Intuitively, it becomes clear that the term grounded is derived from the need for the hypothesis to be made after empirical research has been conducted thus the theory is grounded on either qualitative or quantitative data. By comparing behavioral research to the grounded theory also abbreviated as GT, it is further elucidated that whereas the former uses people or patients for research, the latter uses a given research unit as an incident thus hundreds of incidents are considered when dealing with grounded theory.

This means that GT can be applied in various fields especially when conducting business researches because a researcher can make a report regarding any of the hundreds of incidents identified. The incidents also form the basis upon which probability statements are made. This is supported by the fact that GT presents general methods which can be compatible with any kind of data ranging from qualitative to quantitative data. Despite this, grounded theories make use of mathematical and statistical probabilities thus the theory is considered being more sideline to the qualitative side since the theory is conservative in its use of statistical figures and methodology. According to an observation made by Oktay, (2012), grounded theory gives the researcher the option of using general methods whose use is complemented by either quantitative or qualitative data. Even while working with probabilities, GT uses more qualitative data which makes it a perfect choice for business people especially when quantitative data is incorporated.

Oktay, (2012) adds that grounded theories are hardly used for reporting statistical data featuring probabilities but they are used interchangeably to advance probability statements dealing with relationships integrated with sets of conceptualized hypotheses basically developed using empirical data. On the other hand GT does not emphasize on validity thus it judged by attributes such as fit, workability, relevance and modifiability. In this context, fit represents the collinear relationship identified between the incidents and the concepts presented by the researcher. Relevance means the actual aim with which a research is conducted. Workability represents the problem solving capacity of the theory while modifiability describes the ease with which essential premises underlying a given theory can be altered so as to facilitate the comparison of new and old data collected from the field. With these definitions, it becomes rife that GT is wholly dependent on fit, modifiability, relevance and workability thus the theory does not emphasize whether a given hypothesis is right or wrong (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill 2012). The margin of correctness when using GT is identified by the mathematical measure identified using the four attributes.

Since the inception of the grounded theory, several advancements have been made in the past to make the theory more relevant to other disciplines of study. Based on this objective and the need to expand the applicability of the theory, heated debates conducted by theorists have led to the splitting of methodologies regarding GT. The first theory being divergent grounded theory which came into existence in the 1967 (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill 2012). The disagreement between Strauss and Glaser on how the theory should be applied spiked debates which led to the names Glaserian and Straussian paradigms. This split was made clear after the publication of the book “Qualitative analysis for social scientists in the year 1987. The book by Strauss led to the divergence of philosophers such as Juliet Corbin who published a book on the basics of a qualitative research by presenting perspectives in support of GT techniques and procedures when undertaking medical researches, business or social science research (Juliet & Strauss 2008).

Glaser refuted the publications by the two authors citing reasons why the grounded theory was the perfect theory that supported objective collection of data. According to Glaser, GT is inclusive of many aspects some of which were omitted by Strauss and Corbin. Thus Glaser presents ideologies that support the original grounded theory. An independent author nnnn¸ argues that the credibility of either Glaser or Strauss can be determined by defining the meaning of coding which is a relevant term when defining GT. This paper tend to conform to the approach stipulated by Glaser. The Glaser’s approach contains the premise on which the GT paradigm is formulated. According to Glaser, the theory describes a comparative method where a researcher uses the first field data collected to make comparative indicators and patterns that guide the formation of hypotheses, concepts and theories. He also does not advocate for GT as being wholly dependent on qualitative data but an integration of the two. By so doing, Oktay, (2012) emphasizes that GT can be comfortably used in media, sciences or even other fictitious researches. According to Glaser, GT is not limited in applicability because it is devoted not devoted to ascertaining accuracy.

On the other hand Strauss named three basic elements that define grounded theories. The grounded theory approach has the element of theoretic sensitivity codes which generate theoretic concepts that explain statistical phenomenon. The second element represents theoretical sampling which helps a researcher in determining the best sample for interviews or analysis. It is through sampling that a researcher collects data which is then analyzed to generate theories. After the formulation of the theories, the researcher will need to compare the phenomenon and the immediate contexts so as to make the theory stronger. In the words of Mills, Bonner and Francis (2006), Glaser’s definition and stamen regarding the applicability of the grounded theory hold more weight as compared to Strauss. In the eyes of Glaser, grounded theory emphasizes on emergence or induction and individual creativity at the various stages while to Strauss, validation of research data coupled with a systematic approach to research seems to be more important.

As it was supported by Mills, Bonner and Francis (2006) the Classic Glaserian Grounded Theory also abbreviated as CGT, it is a research methodology that was instituted into the wide arena of research so as to situate empirical findings by assessing the place and position of relevant literatures that can support decision making. The theory is advantageous in supporting conceptualization as opposed to contextualization. Whereas the former derogates comparison of concepts the later defines the origin of data hence describes authenticity of a given research. The selection of literature has to be selectively guided by behavioral patterns which again reflects back on the four attributes of fit, workability, modifiability and relevance. Using these concepts as supported by (Kelle 2005) then, it becomes evident that comparison of literature is key to the formulation of hypothesis thus qualifying the grounded theory as being superior to its predecessors. With the theory, a researcher is restricted from forming hypothesis before collecting data because of several reasons among them being the need to make inferences supported by the availability of preliminary data.

In spite of being restrictive on the formulation of hypotheses, GT encourages researchers to engage in studies relating to loosely defined topics of research that are relevant to the interests of the researcher. In the event that a researcher wants to preconceive a research problem by making hypotheses in advance, then the applicability of the grounded theory is compromised. This is basically because the research would have preferred suing classical theories of research which have been associated with the weakness of influencing researchers into embracing subjectivity rather than objectivity. Classical theories have moreover been disqualified by CGT which has the advantage of helping the researcher identify knowledge gaps and consequently develop informed hypothesis that helps in the collection of relevant information (Faggiolani 2011).

In order to avoid being subjective by developing a pre-judged or a preconceived impression of any given research, the Glaser grounded theory becomes the most preferable. The theories importance is embedded in the realization that a researcher with a preconceived opinion about a given topic of interest will tend to favor their theory so as to save themselves from the risks associated with the formation of null hypotheses. This can be emphasized by looking at enquiries which have been made in the recent past using CQT. The use of fit, workability, relevance and modifiability instead of judgment such as wrong or right eliminates the probability of developing null hypotheses (Clarke 2008). Unlike classical theories, CQT encourages researchers to read unrelated literature including fictions, drama or poetry before the actual commencement of research. By so doing the researcher will be better placed to accurately identify, recognize and analyze behavior patterns as well as the relationships presented by the codes, concepts and categories thus leading into the formation of unbiased theories. A researcher has to be careful when choosing research methods so as to avoid limiting the research to the thoughts of biased respondents.

The grounded theory has been applauded by many researchers as well as theorists who find it to be applicable in myriads of courses and its support for technology and modern advanced statistical researches but there have been critics. The first critic has revolved around its being misunderstood as a theory (Oktay 2012). The question asked in this case is the qualifying factors that make GT a theory rather than a research model. The second critic has revolved the claim that the theory uses inductive knowledge. Charmaz, (2009) sums up these theories by suggesting that no theorist can free his or her research work from critics but the intensity varies. The main disadvantage with the GT theory is that it is almost impossible to free oneself from prejudice or preconception because a researcher will always find a way to forge data so as to favor a certain line of thought.

There is generally a lack of congruence in the interpretation of the premises on which the theory is grounded. This is because the argument between Strauss and Glaser exposed several loopholes in the interpretation of the theory.  Apparently the argument made the theory open to discussions relating to the suitability of both the qualitative and quantitative inquiries. To break the code at this point, Bryant and Charmaz, (2007) suggests the use of constant comparative methods. Being that the grounded theory was developed at a period when all the other qualitative methods of data collection were considered as being unscientific, it easily became acknowledged among researchers who showed academic rigor and much optimism with the use of the theory. The grounded theory has as a result been equated to qualitative research.

References

Bryant, A & Charmaz, K 2007. Grounded theory in historical perspective: An epistemological account’, in Bryant, A. and Charmaz, K. (eds.), The SAGE Handbook of Grounded Theory. Los Angeles

Charmaz, K 2009. Shifting the grounds: Constructivist grounded theory methods. In J.M. Morse, P.N. Stern, J. Corbin, B. Bowers, K. Charmaz, & A.E. Clarke (Eds.), Developing grounded theory: The second generation (pp. 127–154). Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press.

Clarke, A 2008. Situational Analysis: Grounded Theory after the Postmodern Turn. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Faggiolani, C 2011. Perceived Identity: applying Grounded Theory in Libraries”. JLIS.it University of Florence

Juliet, C & Strauss, L 2008. Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques”. Sage: US

Kelle, U 2005. “Emergence” vs. “Forcing” of Empirical Data? A Crucial Problem of “Grounded Theory” Reconsidered. Forum Qualitative Forum: Qualitative Social Research

Mills, J., Bonner, A., & Francis, K 2006. The development of constructivist grounded theory’, International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 5(1): 25-35.

Oktay, J 2012. Grounded Theory. Oxford University Press: New York.

Saunders, M., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A 2012. Research Methods for Business Students (6^th ed.). Harlow: Pearson Education.

Savin-Baden, M & Major, C 2013. Qualitative Research: The Essential Guide to Theory and Practice. Rutledge: London

Thornberg, R & Charmaz, K 2012. Grounded theory. In S. D. Lapan, M. Quartaroli, & F. Reimer (Eds.), Qualitative research: An introduction to methods and designs (pp. 41-67). John Wiley/Jossey-Bass: San Francisco.

 

Misconceptions in classifying two-dimensional figures

Introduction

Mathematical errors occur due to several diverse reasons which can be student or teacher related. General misconceptions in mathematics vary and are attributed to mathematical complexity, presentational complexity, and translational complexity (Beckmann, 2013). Geometry study in mathematics begins early in school with teachers beginning with two-dimension figures and proceeding with more complex concepts. General misconceptions in study of geometry in a way impact on two-dimension classification misconceptions (Van et al., 2013). Generally, children believe geometry is difficult, confusing, and too broad a topic to comprehend. Misconceptions in classifying two-dimension shapes are to some extent the fault of teachers, learners and learning aids.

Generally, two-dimension figures are grouped as triangles, quadrilaterals, polygons, and circles (Stefan et al., 2012). Triangles include equilateral, isosceles, scalene and right-angled. These triangles are categorized according to length of sides, angles, lines of symmetry, and rotational symmetry among others (Annenberg Learner, 2013). Equilateral triangles have equal sides, equal angles, 3 lines of symmetry, and third order rotation symmetry. Isosceles have two equal sides and angles, one line of symmetry, and no rotation symmetry. Scalene have three sides of unequal length, no line of symmetry, and no rotation symmetry (Learner, 2013).

Generally, when children are introduced to triangles, in most cases proto-typical shapes used in books, posters or worksheets use equilateral triangles as the only type of triangle. Normally, children grow up believing that a triangle has three equal sides and angles. This is because teachers only focus on having children label shapes without providing detailed information. Considering that certain aspects of brain growth and development are best enhanced when children are young, usage of equilateral triangle diagrams in reference to all triangles creates a misconception that all triangles should have equal sides and angles (Beckmann, 2013). Therefore, when children come across isosceles, scalene or right-angled triangles which they are not conversant with, they are likely rule them out from the list of triangles.

Misconception that right-angled triangles do not have lines of symmetry does not apply all the time since a right-angled triangle can have two equal sides hence making it have one line of symmetry and in turn it becomes an isosceles triangle.

Quadrilaterals are any four sided figures and include rectangle, square, parallelogram, trapezium, rhombus, oblong, and kite (Van et al., 2013). These figures are categorized according to equality of sides, angles, lines of symmetry, and rotational symmetry. This classification to some extent overlooks the fact that a square is a special rectangle since it is a quadrilateral with four right-angles which therefore changes the generalization that rectangles have two lines of symmetry and two order rotation symmetry.

Definition of parallelogram as quadrilateral with opposite sides that are parallel and have equal lengths makes square, rectangle, and rhombus parallelograms too (Stefan et al., 2012). However, it is said to have order two rotational symmetry which is not the case for a triangle that has order four rotational symmetry (Laureate Education, 2013).

Recommendations

Teachers need to use more non-prototypical shapes while teaching and include more different shapes as examples. This will rid the misconception that size, orientation, and ratio are integral attributes in classifying two-dimension shapes (Learner, 2013). It will also make children more conversant with all existing shapes in detail hence advanced studies in geometry will not be difficult for them. Teachers also need to expand their teaching methods to ensure that children understand what defines a particular shape category. This will enable them understand and identify integral attributes of a shape and differentiate them from non-integral attributes like size.

 

 

References

Annenberg Learner. (2013). Teacher’s lab: Shape and space in geometry. Retrieved from             www.learner.org/teacherslab/math/geometry/

Beckmann, S. (2013). Mathematics for elementary teachers with activities (4th ed.). Boston,          MA: Pearson.

Laureate Education (Producer). (2013e). Two-dimensional figures [Video file]. Retrieved from https://class.waldenu.edu

Stefan, M. L., McManus, G. E., Dickey, A. L., & Arb, M. S. (2012). Defining supports geometry. Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School, 18(2), 92–98.
Defining supports geometry by Stefan, M. McManus, G., Dickey, A. & Maxwell, S.A., in Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School, Vol.18, Issue 2. Copyright 2012 by National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. Reprinted by permission of National Council of Teachers of Mathematics via the Copyright Clearance Center.

Van de Walle, J. A., Karp, K. S., & Bay-Williams, J. M. (2013). Elementary and middle school mathematics: Teaching developmentally (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

WORD COUNT 2530

Management Research Methods: Grounded Theory Method

The Grounded Theory Approach was developed by two sociologists, Anselm Strauss and Barney Glaser, through their collaborated research on dying patients in hospitals. Through this research they came up with a comparative method that is now Grounded Theory method (Seidel & Urquhart, 2013). It is a systematic methodology that involves discovery of theory through data analysis. This research approach operates in a reverse mode compared to traditional methodologies. The study starts with data collection rather than the hypothesis. Key points from data collected are then marked using a series of codes extracted from the text (Seidel &Urquhart, 2013). In order to make the codes more relevant and easy to use they are grouped according to concepts that are similar. Categories which form the basis for theory development are then formed from the concepts (Seidel & Urquhart, 2013). This paper seeks to define grounded theory, compare, contrast, and critique works by different authors on this approach as well as analyze its advantages and disadvantages.

According to Seidel and Urquhart (2013), ground theory can therefore, be described as a research method that enables one to develop a theory, which offers explanations to the main concern of a population under study and how the concern is resolved. Seidel and Urquhart (2013), notes that this approach enables the researcher to seek out and conceptualize the underlying social structures and patterns of the area under study through constant comparison process. A study by Charmaz (2006), reveals that grounded theory is ideal in the exploration of integral relationships of populations and the behaviour of groups in instances where little exploration of contextual factors affecting the lives of individuals exist. This forms the basis for professional interventions in addressing the concerns of the participants through the demystifying of conjecture and preconception.

The development of Grounded Theory was influenced by the Symbolic Interactionism. According to this school of thought human beings act on the basis of the meaning things represent to them. Meanings are derived from the social interactions and are modified through interpretive processes used in dealing with the interactions (Charmaz, 2006). According to Mello and Flint (2009), the main purpose of conducting a grounded theory research in management and business is to create new concepts and theories that are business related and firmly grounded within qualitative data. The approach facilitates the emergence of rich and original findings of business concepts that are closely bound to the data.

Mello and Flint (2009), argues that the process of conducting a Grounded Theory starts by identifying an area of interest such as the work process, online learning or management studies. The study will, therefore, be based on the perspective of a group of people of the target area who will form the substantive population for example, patients, doctors or students. According to the two researchers, data collection can be done through either qualitative or quantitative methods or a combination of the two approaches. In-depth interviews are the most commonly used methods of data collection and uses open-ended questions. Questions used in questionnaires can be modified to cater for emerging theory. Interviews start with topic guide that are that are then used to collect data. Mello and Flint (2009), notes that researchers should be theoretically sensitive to data by trying to understand issues that participants consider to be significant. In addition, it is important to have as few predetermined ideas as possible; an open mind. This basically implies that prior knowledge should be used to inform the researcher’s analysis and not to direct it. Therefore, literature is used as data that is to be compared with the emerging categories for integration in the theory. This analysis of the grounded theory is quite detailed and outlines the basic processes involved in this approach unlike the one by Mello and Flint who fails to clearly outline the study methodology.

Gibson and Hartman, (2013), postulate that theoretical sampling is another method of data collection that involves joint collection, coding, and analyses. Tis way the researcher is able to identify what other date they require and where to find it so as to develop the theory as it emerges. They argue that this approach is best applied when some key concepts have already been discovered and is used to generate further data that is used to confirm and refute original categories. Data collection can be done through observation of the substantive area and the activities taking place within it. Data can also be collected by use of private and public records in all their forms. Examples are news reports, survey, diary, sculpture, photography as well as government and organizational documents. The researcher can also use individual and group conversations either face to face or remotely.

According to Gibson and Hartman, (2013), during data collection the researcher should also do the open coding. This will facilitate the identification of the core category and the major concern. The core category on this case gives an explanation of the behavior of the substantive area, how the main concern of study is resolved. They note that the importance of the core category in grounded theory approach is that it forms the basis for the generation of theory and for most data variations Memos should also be written throughout the entire study process. Memo writing is an intermediate step between the coding and the drafting of the study.  Gibson and Hartman, (2013), argue that once the core category and major concern have been identified, open coding should be replaced with selective coding. This involves coding for the core category and the related categories only. Once the categories are saturated, the memos should be sorted and theoretical codes identified. When the theory is well formed it is integrated with the literature through selective coding.

Gibson and Hartman (2013), postulate that there are two steps of coding processes in data analysis namely line by line or open coding and the theoretical coding. Theoretical coding is used to conceptualize the relationship between the open codes so as to be used as hypothesis which is then integrated into a theory. Open coding is the process through which initial concepts are generated from data. Axial coding involves the development and linking of concepts into coding paradigm. Selective coding, on the other hand, entails selective coding and development of theoretical frameworks. Gibson and Hartman, (2013), argue that the theoretical saturation of concepts in grounded theory method is a point at which the cycle of data collection and analysis can conclude. At this point no additional data is being found and the researcher can develop the categories. The grounded theory method has criteria for assessing the quality of the study. The fit and relevance approach is used to gauge how well the categories can relate to the data. Workability refers to the process of integrating the categories into the emerging core categories. Modifiability refers to counterchecking that all the important concepts are merged in the theory through the process of constant comparison. Gibson and Hartman have to a great extent outlined the whole process of the grounded theory methodology in detail and preciseness. The analysis offers substantial information that readers are able to understand the approach deeply and easily.

According to Dunne, (2011), grounded theory method of research is the systematic use of data to generate theory. The aim is to formulate hypothesis through the use of ideas. The approach also aims at identifying participant’s main concern and ways that they try to resolve it. Dunne (2011), points out that the main questions guiding the researcher are “what is going on, what problems do the participants have, and how are they trying to resolve it?” answers to these questions are provided by the core variables and sub-cores. This approach does not aim find the truth rather to use the empirical research to conceptualize what is going on.

Dunne (2011), postulates that grounded theory requires that there should be no literature review before research. The researcher, therefore, has the freedom to develop new concepts to explain human behavior. Literature review should instead be done in the sorting stage as more data to be compared with what is already coded and generated. In addition, Dunne, (2011), argues that the researcher should refrain from taping and talking. Positive feedback would make one contented with what they already have while negative feedback destroys self-confidence.

According to Engward (2013), grounded theory is a method of discovering theory from data through the use of comparative analysis. It is based on the principal that much of the modern research can be classified as the verification of theory through critical deductions rather than from data derived from the experiment itself. Engward (2013), argues that grounded Theory can be generated by comparative analysis where groups of people are compared and their differences developed into a theory. Grounded theory can appear in the form of a set of prepositions well coded or as a theoretical discussion in form of conceptual categories. Grounded theory can also be developed through theoretical sampling. This involves an interactive data collection, analysis, coding, and planning process. The researcher is required to be data sensitive (Engward, 2013). This implies that they should be in a position to detect where the data is directing them to and what they should do in that case. They should also avoid coming into research with existing theoretical framework as this will only block the utilization of the incoming data. The researcher may explore the same group more deeply or seek new ones. Comparison groups are selected on the basis of their theoretical relevance to the development of the already emerging categories (Engward, 2013). Data should guide the selection of more groups as one proceeds with the study. There are four main stages involved in coding data in order to develop categories and hypotheses. These methods are comparing incidents for each category, integrating categories, delimiting the theory, and writing the theory.

Urquhart (2013), defines grounded theory method is a general research method that guides data collection through the use of qualitative or quantitative data of any type such as images, video, observation, and spoken word. It is a research tool that enables researchers to seek out and hypothesize latent social structures and patterns in a given study area by the use of the constant comparison process. The approach requires that one uses inductive method to come up with substantive codes. The codes develop into theory which then guides the next move and direction to collect more data (Urquhart, 2013). In this analysis Urquhart fails to indicate the methods and process of analyzing the data that one can apply when using the grounded theory approach. The outline given does not provide enough information to readers to help them get a clear picture of the approach and to be in a position to compare it with other methods.

The grounded theory approach is most appropriate when the main aim of the study of social experiences is to explain a process, and not to test an existing theory. There is no testing or developing of hypothesis rather theory is developed through close analysis of the data (Urquhart, 2013). The key features of this study are the theoretical sampling, iterative study design, and system of analysis. An iterative study design involves collecting data and analyzing it simultaneously where analysis guides the next plan of data collection (Urquhart et al 2013).

Grounded theory method of research has several advantages. It has can be used by novice researchers because it allows them to get immersed in the data in detail. This gives them an opportunity to learn more about their study area and about research in general (Seidel & Urquhart, 2013). These advantages are described as below.

The method allows researchers to start analyzing the data at an early stage. The benefit in this is that the results of early analysis will guide the researcher into the direction of the next set of data to collect unlike in other methods where population is determined prior to the study and analysis done after all data has been collected (Seidel &Urquhart, 2013). It encourages and provides a method for a very systematic and detailed analysis of data. This is achieved through comparison of related data and the developing of core categories. It allows for more qualitative and quantitative analysis than other social science approaches (Mello & Flint, 2009).

The method generates enough evidence for researchers to support their claims. Research is at objective and subject to criticism. A researcher should therefore use a method that creates enough evidence for the findings so that the study is validated. The grounded theory approach provides sufficient evidence for studies (Mello and Flint, 2009). Moreover, it is ideal in describing repeated processes for example the communication processes used between analysts and users. This is because the study is based on comparison of categories. The researcher is able to identify concerns between parties in groups of study and form a basis for professional interventions to such issues (Mello and Flint, 2009).

Grounded theory has some disadvantages as well. First time users of this research method might have a hard time during coding. The coding is a complex process for people using the method for the first time (Mello and Flint, 2009). In addition, open coding is time consuming especially for broad studies, and may make the study process using this approach such an overwhelming process as compared to other approaches (Mello and Flint, 2009).

It is difficult to scale up when dealing with larger concepts. The basic principal of this approach requires that the researcher needs to narrow down to the core categories but this may prove difficult for studies covering broad concepts (Mello and Flint, 2009). On a similar note, the method is detailed and may pose a challenge when visualizing the bigger picture. It also tends to produce only low level theories. This approach is referred to as a theory yet what it produces cannot really be classified as a theory. This approach is referred to as a theory yet what it produces cannot really be classified as a theory (Seidel and Urquhart, 2013).

This approach is referred to as a theory yet what it produces cannot really be classified as a theory. The notion of ground is also misplaced, it is not logical to ground one’s findings in qualitative research. The basis of grounding is also not clear. The use and claims of inductive knowledge are also ambiguous. It is impossible to have a preconception free approach in the process of collection and analysis of data as is suggested by Glaser and Strauss (Mello and Flint, 2009).

In conclusion, the grounded theory method is a research technique that seeks to generate theory from systematically gathered and analyzed data. The main purpose of conducting a grounded theory research in management and business is to create new concepts and theories that are business related and firmly grounded within qualitative data. The approach facilitates the emergence of rich and original findings of business concepts that are closely bound to the data.

References

Charmaz K (2006) Constructing Grounded Theory: A Practical Guide through Qualitative Analysis London Sage Publications

Dunne, C. (2011). The place of the literature review in grounded theory research. International Journal Of Social Research Methodology, 14(2), 111-124

Engward, H. (2013). Understanding grounded theory. Nursing Standard, 28(7), 37-41.

Gibson, B. B., & Hartman, J. J. (2013). Rediscovering Grounded Theory. Electronic Journal Of Business Research Methods, 11(2), 116.

Glaser B. G and Strauss AL (1967) The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research New York: Aldine de Gruyter

Lawrence, J., & Tar, U. (2013). The use of Grounded Theory Technique as a Practical Tool for Qualitative Data Collection and Analysis. Electronic Journal Of Business Research Methods, 11(1), 29-40. Glaser B. G (1992) Basics of grounded theory analysis Emergence vs. forcing California: Sociology Press

Mello, J., & Flint, D. J. (2009). A refined view of grounded theory and its application to logistics research. Journal Of Business Logistics, 30(1), 107-125.

Mills, J., Bonner, A., & Francis, K 2006. The development of constructivist grounded theory’, International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 5(1): 25-35.

Seidel, S., & Urquhart, C. (2013). On emergence and forcing in information systems grounded theory studies: the case of Strauss and Corbin. Journal Of Information Technology (Palgrave Macmillan), 28(3), 237-260.

Urquhart, C., Lehmann, H., & Myers, M. D. (2010). Putting the ‘theory’ back into grounded theory: guidelines for grounded theory studies in information systems. Information Systems Journal, 20(4), 357-381.

 

 

 

 

Nike

Nike is a multinational organization based in the United States, Nike is engaged in development, design, manufacturing and marketing of its products in the global market. Nike is recognized for apparel, footwear, accessories, equipment and services. Nike as a brand has stood the test of time; it has made significant contributions in sports equipments, apparel and athletic shoes. Nike is a Greek name meaning a goddess of success, other brands associated with Nike are: Air Jordan, Nike Golf, subsidiaries connected to Hurley International, Nike Pro, Nike Skateboarding and Nike+ among others; this paper focus at the Nike’s market segmentation with respect to the target market. The paper also focuses at demographic, geographic, psychographic, positioning statement and behavioral characteristics of the brand.

Sportsmen and sportswomen are the most common consumers of the Nike’s products. Nike’s products are designed to support diverse sporting activities (Goldman & Papson, 2008). Sportsperson and athletes are aware of the importance of the brand and the contribution Nike has made in the sporting activities in the world. The majority of Sportsperson has high chances of going for Nike products and doing away with the competitor products like Reebok (Frisch, 2008).

Nike is keen on styling the products and services through close association of the apparel with triumph. An example, considering a superstar athlete, particular apparel is connected with the success of the athlete, if the apparel was shoes; then the shoes are directly related to the victory (Frisch, 2008). The relationship has a psychological effect on the part of the viewers, which results in promotion of the Nike’s products and services.

It has been noted that Nike targets the existing and potential users of the products and services; the model is designed to develop product intimacy (Hollister, 2008). Target market is after utility and quality and not necessarily on the costs involved. The costs are affordable to most consumers of the Nike’s products (Katz, 2005).

Pricing strategies are designed in a way to foster product closeness and understanding, Nike engages higher cost as compared to the rivals in the apparel industry. Nike engages pricing points considered to be superior in pushing for the value associated with the products. A number of customers follow the success associated with the company, which acts as a promotion strategy to the products made by Nike (Goldman & Papson, 2008).

Nike acquired a substantial market share through agreements between the Nike Company and the sports teams, product support, college athlete, sponsorship and endorsement of target team members who performed exemplarily. Nike through diverse marketing strategies has managed to acquire substantial target market shares, Nike mainly targets the Sportsperson and the teenagers with hip hop customs (Hollister, 2008). Nike has targeted strategies that focus on all sportspersons, immediate users and to the athletes. The targeting techniques are designed in a way that they include celebrity athletes, college sports and athletic teams that are performing exemplary at sporting; such people and strong teams facilitate product sponsorship (Goldman & Papson, 2008). The marketing strategy has been influential in reaching out to the established and upcoming Sportsperson and teams. Nike has an innovative culture that ensures that the products and services set a market differentiation in the target market (Katz, 2005).

Some of the influential Sportsperson engaged by Nike are; Roberto Carlos, Ronaldinho and Ronaldo who are soccer superstars. Others are; Lebron James and Jermaine O’Neal, superstars in the basketball legend. Tiger Woods and Lance Armstrong are also influential sportspersons in the Golf. Nike engages celebrities as a way of associating the brand with successes, a model that has earned Nike a brand loyalty (Goldman & Papson, 2008). Nike awareness has been facilitated by the self confessed Sportsperson who have made a career and a name in the sporting world. Celebrities are influential to the Nike products through the mass media outlets.

Distribution strategies of Nike are well connected in the global market, it has been noted that effective distribution networks results in more profits due to the increased sales of the Nike’s products; if the products are delivered in time and in the right format, there are high chances that the target market will be satisfied with the products, a model that foster brand loyalty (Hollister, 2008). Promotional and communication marketing strategy of Nike focus on quality products, which have built customer loyalty over the decades of operations (Frisch, 2008).

Nike’s market segmentation focuses on demographic, psychographic, behavioral, geographic and market positioning. Geographic segmentation focuses at different nations of the world; each nation is treated as unique with defined characteristics, examples of geographic segmentation focus on the United States market, United Kingdom market, and Indian market and on the Malaysian market among others (Katz, 2005). In the United States, Nike focuses on running, Nike+, women, football, soccer, sportswear, Nike 6.0, snowboarding, skateboarding and golf among others. In the United Kingdom, Nike focuses on running, Nike+, women, football, basketball, sportswear, Nike 6.0, golf, snowboarding and skateboarding among others. In India, Nike focuses on cricket, football, Nike+, running and sportswear among others and in Malaysia, Nike focuses on running, Nike+, basketball, football and sportswear (Hollister, 2008).

Demographic segmentation mainly focuses on males, females and on children. Male are mainly involved in running, football, baseball, basketball, Nike sportswear, lacrosse, track & field, tennis, golf, soccer, action sports, Jordan and outdoor among others. Women mainly concentrate on running, basketball, Nike sportswear, soccer, walking, softball, action sports, volleyball, tennis, tennis & filed and in golf among others. Children’s apparel focuses on youth games, preschool games and for the toddlers and infants (Goldman & Papson, 2008).

Psychographic segmentation focus on the values attached to the mission statement of Nike. Nike is committed in fostering innovation and inspiration to the global athletes. Psychographic also focus on personalities. Nike has developed strong slogans that have sold out to the target customers. Some of influential slogans are: ‘Just do it’, ‘Write the future’, ‘Everyone loses games, few change them’ and ‘We are all witnesses’ among others (Hollister, 2008). Behavioral segmentation focus on utility, style and technology; Nike connects its products with occasions and events, a model that has influenced the purchasing patterns of the target customers. Positioning statement of Nike in the target market has allowed customization, which has fostered individual marketing (Frisch, 2008).

Nike’s marketing strategy has been influenced by the brand image, which has been critical in Nike in the global market. Favorable products of Nike have been selling all over the world basing on the unique and distinct relations with the product slogans. Nike has been marketing its products aggressively in the target market over the decades. Nike’s marketing strategy has heavily invested in the product promotion and commercials. Nike has been adhering to the marketing plans, marketing principles and to the marketing strategies. A number of organizations in the world are emulating the Nike’s marketing strategy in increasing their market share in the target market.

 

References

Frisch, A. (2008). The Story of Nike. Sioux Falls, South Dakota : Creative Co (Sd) .

Goldman, R. & Papson, S. (2008). Nike Culture: The Sign of the Swoosh. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications Ltd.

Hollister, G. (2008). Out of Nowhere: The Inside Story of How Nike Marketed the Culture of Running. Aachen: Meyer & Meyer Fachverlag und Buchhandel GmbH.

Katz, D. (2005). Just Do It: The Nike Spirit in the Corporate World. New York: Adams Media Corporation.

 

 

 

 

Business analysis week 2

Question 2

H₀: µ=µ Chewing NoCav gum reduces the number of cavities in individuals annually.

H_A:µ₁≠µ₁ Chewing NoCav gum does not reduce the number of cavities in individuals annually (Shi & Tao, 2008).

Question 3

H₀: µ=µ Less than 15% of adult males are unemployed.

H_A: µ≠µ Less than 15% of adult males are not unemployed (Easton & McColl, 2013).

Question 4

H₀: µ=µ Changes in political climate will not affect his 63% support.

H_A: µ<µ Changes in political climate will reduce his 63% support.

: µ>µ Changes in political climate will increase his 63% support (Lehmann & Romano, 2005).

 

 

 

References

Easton, V. J. & McColl, J. H. (2013). Statistics Glossary. Retrieved on 17^th January, 2013 from http://www.stats.gla.ac.uk/steps/glossary/hypothesis_testing.html

Lehmann, E. L. & Romano, J. P. (2005). Testing Statistical Hypotheses (3^rd ed.). New York: Springer Science+ Business Media.

Shi, N-Z., & Tao, J. (2008). Statistical Hypothesis Testing: Theory and Methods. China: World Scientific.

Mgt655 mini project one

Introduction

Different people engage in different ventures that interest them. The most important thing is to venture in a business that one understands better in order to succeed. It is salient to have a vision and specific goals that one aspires to achieve when setting up or managing a business. This paper delineates on duties of management in a venture that I have worked for.

Purpose of the paper

The paper delineates on a number of issues pertaining entrepreneurships. These aspects include description of the kind of the venture, duties of the management and variables and fixed costs related to the operation of the venture.

Overview of the paper

As discussed above, this paper covers on the major aspects relating to an entrepreneur.   The paper deliberates further on the venture, the duties of the management and some of the costs that the company incurs. Every company is able to manage and run its operations on certain costs and this is the reason why this paper deliberates on this.  Managers are also essential in ensuring that the goals and objectives of an organization are met. Investing or recruiting effective managers is something every company needs to invest in and take it with a lot of care.

Discussion

In any venture or business, a manager provides leadership (Timmins, 2011).  I have always yearned to work at a telecommunication company and therefore, this interest drove me to secure a chance at AT & T Inc. Working at this company has provided me fulfillment as I enjoyed the positive relationship with my fellow colleague and even the management.    Management played various duties in the operation of the venture. Management is categorized in various departments and they play these functions with the intention of achieving a common goal or success of the company. They mostly play supervisory role geared at ensuring that all the systems and processes run smoothly. They are responsible for the staffing in the business. They carry out various functions relating to staffing such as interviewing prospective employees, hiring and firing and ensure that staffs recruited are capable to execute their duties and at the same time adhere to the rules and regulation of the work place (Timmins, 2011). These managers also ensure that communication is promoted to ensure that all process run on smoothly. They ensure that they understand the directives from their senior management and communicate them to the staffs. They also use effective communication to solve conflicts and to motivate employees as well as enhance relationship at the workplace.  Management also ensures that business records grow. This is achieved by providing good leadership through coaching and mentoring,   maintenance of quality controls and ensuring that services provided satisfies the customers’ needs. Most of the managers generally in the company play the role of planning, organizing, directing, monitoring and evaluation. The managers in this venture are good and effective. They are recruited based of competencies therefore; they ensure that the organization achieves its functions. The growth levels in the company over the few past years are also a clear indication that indeed these managers are competent.

The kind of the venture of the company is a service industry providing a range of telecommunication services.  AT & T Inc. is a multinational company that has its headquarter  at Whiteacre Towers in Texas. The company provides both fixed telephony and mobile telephony services in USA. It also offers broadband subscription television services. The major reason for venturing in this business was to serve the larger customer base.

Every firm must incur  variable and fixed costs in its operations. Variable costs are costs that keep on changing. They are not statistic while fixed costs are costs that are stable and do not fluctuate.  Being in a position to manage these costs effectively is essential for any venture and most managers do their best level to keep these costs low.  Some of the fixed costs incurred by the company include; salaries, revenues remittance to the government, rent, accountancy costs and insurance costs. These costs do not change based on the sales volume of production. Examples of variable costs included labor, materials, delivery costs and utilities. This is because these expenses always do vary based on the volume or production.  AT & T Inc. is large company and its variable and fixed costs runs into millions of dollars.

Conclusion

The business venture I have worked has played a key role in my understanding of how business is managed. Management plays different duties in a business just to ensure that it achieves its goals and visions. The managers at AT & T Inc. are industrious and competent and perform various duties such as staffing, mentoring, enhancing communication among many others. These functions are majorly supervisory.  The company also incurs both fixed and variable costs in its operations. Because of the nature of the venture, the company has been able to perform better over the years. Demand of the services the company provides is high and this has played a key role in its growth.

References

Kaufman, A. (2002). Managers’ double fiduciary duty: to stakeholders and to freedom, Business Ethics Quarterly, 12(2):189-214.

Timmins, F. (2011). Managers’ duty to maintain good workplace communications skills, Nursing Management – UK, 18(3): 30-34.

 

Questions and Answer

1. Why is the provision of natural resources dependent upon healthy ecosystems?

Provision of natural resources is dependent on healthy ecosystems because these ecosystems have biological limits. The ecosystems are finite implying that they are not easily renewed and therefore, only if these ecosystems are well managed is when they will be able to provide or give natural resources (Parker, 2008).

1. What is lifecycle analysis?

Lifecycle analysis involves measures geared at investigating the processes that are involved in getting a given product to the market place. It involves aspects such as determining of the effects of extraction of raw material, production, manufacturing, transportation and disposal.

1. Why does unchecked economic growth lie at the heart of many environmental issues?

Unchecked economic growth lies at the heart of many environmental issues because it leads to unsustainable development practices that eventually contribute to negative feedback loops (Parker, 2008). The economy may be improving as a result of exploitation of the ecosystems and the natural resources that reaches at extreme point affecting the environment.

1. What will a “sustainable economy” look like?

A sustainable economy ensures that there is harmony in the social, economic and environmental systems aimed at benefiting the inhabitants both presently and in the future. Such an economy aims at providing a decent way of life to all the members of the society. Sustainable economy is furthermore diversified, as it is not easily disrupted by internal and external events to disasters because it does not transfer the cost of maintaining its good health to other regions (Livable Communities Initiatives 2000).

1. Why do production and consumption represent “just part” of an economic system?

Production and consumption represent just part of an economic system because, they never cease to happen. They are essential and cannot be avoided. Therefore, any economic system must factor the two.

1. Why is there a need for environmental public policy?

There is a need for environmental public policy to provide guidelines on the activities of the members of the public to safeguard environment. The policy is essential, as it will help to protect the environment by cautioning practices that pollute the environment.

1. What are some factors considered when conducting benefit-cost analysis of environmental public policy?

Factors considered when conducting benefit-cost analysis of environmental public policy include; the benefits and disadvantages of the public policy, the duration it will take for the policy to be implemented and the impacts on the lives of the people.

1. Why has the amount of municipal solid waste in the US grown steadily?

Municipal waste in US has been growing steadily because of the lack of effective implementation of environmental public policy. The laws are breached and this has played a key role in the increase. Other factors include the increasing level of population that has triggered increased production that has resulted to the increased level of the solid waste.  Municipal solid waste management has also failed in terms of its programs geared at effective management of the wastes.

1. What are some alternatives to municipal solid-waste disposal in landfills?

Some of the alternatives to municipal waste disposal in landfills are recycling part of the waste that is recyclable. This will help to reduce the amount of solid wastes. Another way is to designate specific areas that are not productive for disposal of such solids. This will contribute to efficient utilization of the resources in the municipalities. Other alternative method is combustion in a controlled way to reduce the volume of the waste. Combustion helps to facilitate production of steam and water as a byproduct that can generate energy. Advanced technology can also be adopted through well-managed landfills that can generate methane.

1. What are some facets of integrated waste management?

Integrated solid waste management is a comprehensive waste prevention, compositing, recycling and disposal program (United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2013). This ensures that sold waste is managed in a better way to protect human health as well as the environment. Most appropriate waste management activities are selected for different conditions. Integrated waste management concerns adoption of different strategies in management of waste. It is effective when it fosters proper utility of the available resources for the betterment of the environment.  Waste management ensures that there is better disposal of the waste to avoid pollution and other problems. Therefore, selecting the best strategies even if combined to manage waste is something welcome and which should be supported.

 

References

Livable Communities Initiatives. (2000). Principles of sustainability. Retrieved from:             http://www.colorado.edu/hazards/publications/informer/infrmr3/informer3c.htm

Parker, W. (2008, October). The importance of natural capital. Retrieved from             http://www.landcareresearch.co.nz/sustainability/sustainabilty_details

United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2013). What Is Integrated Solid Waste             Management? Retrieved from:           http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/wycd/waste/downloads/overview.pdf

 

Bad News Message

 

To: Mr. Noble Akbar

From: Management Team

1256 Forest ST.

Boston, MA 38283

Date: January 18, 2014

Subject: A request to a refund of a voucher for a ruined two-week vacation due to snow

Dear Mr. Noble

Thank you for being our potential client. We are happy that you are enjoying our services and look forward to working with you. As one of our potential and frequent client, the company established the need to offer you a voucher for a two-week vacation. Our company is always happy when it provides satisfactory services to our clients.

Despite our great will to offer you a voucher for the vocation to Kona Village Resort, the current change of climate conditions is a core challenge. Because of extremely snow accumulations in the country;

• Road conditions are incredibly bad and thus becoming very hard to travel and driving
• You may not have a chance to enjoy the trip as intended because the weather may affect your health (Ackerman & Knox, 2012).
• It is extremely cold to travel

With the mentioned reasons in mind, we wish to cancel the vocation and request you to refund the voucher. Given the projected changes in weather, we hope to organize a trip that will compensate the loss caused by the current weather condition. The company will provide you with additional reward programs such as discounts on our products and services. We are sure you will be satisfied with our services and the planned vocation.

We are sorry for any inconvenience caused. We wish you the best in your projects. Feel free to contact us if you have any inquiry to make or need additional help through the address provided.

Sincerely,

Masood.

Customer Relations.

 

Reference

Ackerman, S. A., & Knox, J. (2012). Meteorology: Understanding the atmosphere. Sudbury, Mass: Jones & Bartlett Learning.

 

Approach to Care

One of the causes of pneumonia is mucor infection. Mucor refers to a mold that grows very fast and that can be found both inside the house and outdoors. Mucor can be found in decaying organic matter and its infection progresses very quickly (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2013). The end of mucor stalks has spherical structures which contain spores. Human exposure to mucor occurs when these spheres rupture, dispersing the spores into the air. The dispersed spores can also spread through water and therefore, leaking plumbing in homes facilitates the growth and spreading of the mold. Mucor grows into a fluffy gray or white mold. Infection takes place when individuals inhale the mucor spores. A patient is infected when mucor gains access to the individuals’ mucous membranes of the nose and lungs (CDC, 2013). These organisms multiply and invade the blood vessels. The patient experiences symptoms such as cough, fever and chest pain and this indicates the development of the infection into pneumonia. One of the nursing interventions for a patient with pneumonia is oxygen therapy which is aimed at maintaining the patients’ saturation. Rehydration of patients with dehydration signs can also be useful in making it easier for them to expectorate secretions. Patients should also undergo medication therapy tailored to the organism responsible for causing the pneumonia (CDC, 2013). The patient should take antifungal medication to treat the mucor infection.

Some of the laboratory values from the blood tests and arterial blood gases are abnormal.

The pH is 7.50 and is therefore slightly higher than the normal 7.35-7.45. Therefore, the patient is experiencing alkalosis. The partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PaCo2) is lower than normal. Therefore, the patient is experiencing respiratory alkalosis since the pH is higher than normal while the PaCO2 is lower (American Thoracic Society, 2014). PaCO2 and pH change in the opposite direction in respiratory disorders. Respiratory alkalosis refers to low carbon dioxide levels resulting from excessive breathing. Rapid breathing or hyperventilation is the main cause of respiratory alkalosis. Hyperventilation causes the quick expulsion of carbon dioxide from the blood. This leads to a rise in pH levels (American Thoracic Society, 2014). Pneumonia is one of the causes of respiratory alkalosis. Hyperventilation also lowers the PaCO2. The partial pressure of oxygen (PaO2) is also lower. Low PaO2 is as a result of hypoventilation or slow breathing. A fasting glucose level that is higher than normal indicates that the patient is at risk of type 2 diabetes. This condition is referred to as hyperglycemia. High glucose levels in pneumonia patients increase their risk of complications and mortality. Lymphocytes are lower than normal and this condition is called lymphopenia. The white blood cell count is higher than normal. This indicates the presence of an infection. The purpose of white blood cells is to fight infections in the body and therefore, they increase when an infection occurs (Sircar, 2008).

Several medications can be prescribed for this patient. A high number of white blood cells indicate that there is an infection. A pneumonia infection from mucor can be treated using antifungal drugs. Moreover, insulin can be used to reduce the fasting glucose levels. Hyperglycemia can be treated using medications such as meglitinide analogs and sulfonylureas in order to stimulate the secretion of insulin (Sircar, 2008). The patient can also undergo several medical treatments. Patients suffering from respiratory alkalosis can be treated by breathing using a mask or into a paper bag to help them breathe in the carbon dioxide (Sircar, 2008). This increases the levels of carbon dioxide in the body and relieves symptoms such as dizziness and lightheadedness. Blood glucose levels can also be reduced through a proper diet plan. Respiratory alkalosis resulting from lung disease can be treated using medications (Sircar, 2008). Fungal pneumonia can also be treated through surgical debridement, which is the removal of the tissues that are affected.

References

American Thoracic Society (2014). Interpretation of arterial blood gases. Retrieved January 22, 2014 from http://www.thoracic.org/clinical/critical-care/clinical-education/abgs.php

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC] (2013). Sources of Mucormycosis. Retrieved January 22, 2014 from http://www.cdc.gov/fungal/mucormycosis/causes.html

Sircar, S. (2008). Principles of Medical Physiology. New York: Thieme Publishers. Retrieved January 22, 2014 from http://books.google.co.ke/books?id=zFl7y5xqHj4C&pg=PA1&lpg=PA1&dq=Principles+of+Medical+Physiology&source=bl&ots=wwm7dyYs24&sig=gF98YVBbDRE1uinhuaQ5j2zqD4Y&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Wa7fUviSIondsgbRmIHAAQ&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Principles%20of%20Medical%20Physiology&f=false

Public Accounting: Infrastructure Development

Decision for infrastructure development

Public infrastructure development is an integral initiative, which should be jointly conducted by government institutions and the private sector. The major reason to build this freeway is centered for the long-term economic benefits of this jurisdiction. Economic expansion, due to improved infrastructure is primarily responsible for job creation. The freeway will as well benefit the middle-class, who forms the driving force of this economy by lowering their general cost of transport. The decision to spend the federal allocation in infrastructure development was based on return on investment. The underlying reasons are that, multinational investments benefits directly from improved infrastructure. Shatz, Kitchens, & Rosenbloom (2011, p. 20) conducted a macroeconomic experiment on the importance of infrastructure to the society. The experiment proved that investment in transport infrastructure is on overall economically productive if it engenders returns to the society that surpass the existing market return of a given private sector.

Estimates

For the freeway to encapsulate feasibly, additional sources of revenue should be identified. Principally, freeway development and other urban corridors intensification policies demand a great deal of capital investment. A kilometer of urban highway development will cost approximately $41 million dollars. This state plans to build 20 kilometers of urban freeway, plus logical maintenance cost commencing after the encapsulation of the freeway. Therefore, the total cost of the freeway development is $820 million. Other substantial costs include; reallocating/ rerouting traffic and surveying around existing infrastructure, which are estimated to cost up to $170 million dollars. The combined costs translate to an estimated $970 million, an excess by $ 870 million of the initial provision by the federal government of $ 100 million.
Additional Revenue

Infrastructure Bonds

There are stretching sources on how this state plans to mobilize revenue. Chief strategy is improvising infrastructure bonds. Infrastructure bonds will be issued by the state with the goal of mobilizing funds from the private sector. Indeed, infrastructure bonds are powered by H.R. 2084: Partnership to Build America Act of 2013, a law sponsored by John Delaney and comprised among others highway and transit committee. This law seeks to marshal the society on a collective effort of funding public infrastructure project. In particular, the law focuses on the role played by multinational companies and wealthy individuals in contributing to infrastructure development.  OECD (2012, p. 169) publication argues that; infrastructure bonds entail the payment of interest to the lender as well as, repayment of the principle amount at a nominated future date. The advantages with this appeal, is that the interest rate are indexed against inflation, this eliminating uncertainty of potential investors. Other alternatives include; infrastructure funds, or infrastructure revenue bonds. Also, public borrowing has merits associated with reduction of excessive spending of the firms and households, thus proving a reliable economic stabilizer. This strategy is expected to mobilize close to $ 680 million.

Alternative Sources

This State is constitutionally mandated to adjust levy collections, impose gas taxes and carry out driver’s license renewals. Gas taxes; for instance will be managed by a dedicated road fund department. This technique is without strain executed because the fuel supplier transparently collects on behalf of the department. It is suggestive to exercise the gas tax when gasoline is imported to the country. Proposition arrived at by the research and development department recommend an increase of 50 cents-per-gallon on gas tax. This is expected to mobilize at least $84 million this year alone.  The third alternative, the renewal of driving license strategy is expected. This will be conducted by dedicated road fund department, by constructing road tolls on dedicated roads. The goal is to ensure that drivers whose registration is not updated, is updated with a fee and a penalty. This strategy is expected to raise $ 62 million this year alone. There is also need to cut other expenditure; for instance, the bolted recurrent expenditure. In any case, employee compensation is the highest in these State. The average hourly wage for employees in this state is ($41, 66).  Proposition; privatize 40 percent of the public sector, with education and Information technology being satellite programs to be affected by these cuts. Excess revenue is expected to raise an additional $64 million from the public coffers.

Source and their Allocation (Budget Accounting System)

The initial figure provided by the federal government of $ 100 million will be spent to the account of hiring an Architecture and Survey purposes at a cost of 9,586,835. The reminder 90,413,165 will be allocated in procuring earth movers for the grounding breaking process. The account of infrastructure bond is expected to initiate to add additional machinery. This include among others, compressors, drillers, loaders, generators, additional tracks and tractors. The total amount specified for machinery in the Infrastructure bond account is 70,000,000. The balance of 610,000,000 million will be distributed as follows. Approval, environmental, legal and planning consideration will be addressed at an estimated cost of 40,000,000. Hard materials include; gravel and hard rock is expected to amount to 180,000,000. Add-endives include asphalt; cement, sand and ballast are expected to amount to 220,000,000. Labor on the other hand, is expected to amount to roughly 90,000,000 while energy will amount to 80,000,000. The revenue generated from gas taxes and driver licenses will entirely be expected to respond to destabilizing effects; for instance, re-routing. Data will be calculated in machine hours against cubic meters. However, this figures are lump-sum, there is a need to consult with local government for proper rating indices.
Expenditures and associated budgeting procedures (Lump Sum Budgeting)

Policy development and fund mobilization will take a maximum period of one year. So to it, it is necessary to develop a realistic budget one that is going to fit in the approximated collection. The unit cost of road-construction in US dollars per mile is the total sum accrued from subunit costs on the total road construction activity. This is achieved by dividing the total machine rates to the activities involved in road construction. Proposed activities include surveying, clearing, surfacing, finishing and drainage.  

Surveying

The freeway is going to be constructed on a relative urban surface, with intent to link two major highways within the city. To accomplish this, this document proposes the estimation of the number of stake set per hour compared to the total installation capacity per hour. The survey production metrics is the comparison of the total installation capacity and the ability actual installation rate (stakes). Strategists estimate the installation crew will achieve the total installing capacity at 120 stakes per Km at a rate of 9 stakes per hour. The total cost of the survey crew is $8 per hour

P= 9/120 = 0.075 Km/hr

Then, UC $8/0.075= $107/ Km

Total Cost of Survey is $107/ Km

Clearing

This can be calculated as the number of hectares of right-of-way to cleared and piled per KM of road. This is calculated by clearing production rate in Km/hr, indeed, the hectares per/hour which can be cleared in an hour, divided by the number of hectares in km intended to be cleared. Clearing is going to be executed by use of tractors; for instance, caterpillars and bulldozers. Other consideration includes felling and removal exercise. This document estimates the use of 5 clearing tractors, and since the site is not dense with stone or wood, the total machine hours involved is going to be significantly lower.

Earth Work

Earthwork work is arrived by estimating the number of cubic meters of materials which must be worked to construct the road. The production rate is arrived at by calculating the number of cubic meters per hour divided by the number of cubic meters moved in an hour. For clear information, the engineer is expected to supply production rates for the proposed machinery. Expected engineer report will attempt to combine machine cost per hour and the production rate on materials.

Finishing

Finishing will be estimated on the number grades that the grader is expected to make, and the actual speed of the grader. The speed of grader will be determined by the width of the road initially designed by the architecture.

 

Surfacing

Surfacing total costs will be arrived by the estimation of the total number surfacing required per/ square meter, and the total freeway size. Cost may include; front-end loaders trucks, dump trucks, transport, spreading and compacting. A crawler tractor and sheep-foot roller may be applied seal the running surface.  To predict cost, it is coherent to determine machine production rates, over the actual size which is 12 kilometers.

Figures

Equipment	Est Machine Hours/ Per Cubic Meter	Est Machine Rate	Total Cost in (Thousands)
Compressors	100	69	6,900
Drillers	74	84	6,216
Loader	2,100	80	168,000
Generator	1,780	60	106,800
Tractor	5,500	87	478,500
Tracks	3,200	60	192,000
Total			958,416

 

Balance 31, 584, 000

{Architectural Fee: 958, 416, 000 *1/100 = 9,584,160}

N.B, Architectural Fee is calculated at a rate of 1 percent.

{Survey Fee 107 * 25= 2,675}

9,584,160 + 2,675 = 9,586,835

31,584,000- 9,586,835=

Balance 21,997,165

NB: To be revised by strategists depending current rates

 

 

References

Shatz, H., Kitchens, K., & Rosenbloom, S. (2011). Highway Infrastructure and the Economy:

Implications for Federal Policy. California: Rand Corporation.

OECD. (2012). Strategic Transport Infrastructure Needs to 2030. OECD Publishing.