Watch the movie Shawshank Redemption. Write a paper reflecting on the ethical theories portrayed in the movie. FORMAT Find 5 scenes in the movie where you observe an ethical theory in action. 5 scenes for each theory: Duty, Consequentialism, and Cultural Relativism. · Column 1: Write 1 – 2 sentences to describe the scene · Column 2: Describe how the ethical theory is portrayed in the scene.
Introduction
Anthropological research is a multidisciplinary endeavor that seeks to understand human societies and cultures through systematic investigation and analysis. Conducting research abroad presents unique challenges and opportunities, as researchers navigate diverse cultural contexts and interact with local communities. Ethics and values play a crucial role in shaping the methodologies, relationships, and outcomes of anthropological research. This essay delves into the significance of ethics and values in conducting anthropological research abroad, examining the ethical considerations involved, the impact of cultural relativism, the role of reflexivity, and the evolution of ethical guidelines. Drawing upon peer-reviewed articles published between 2018 and 2023, this essay offers insights into the complex interplay between researchers’ ethical orientations and the pursuit of meaningful cross-cultural knowledge.
Ethical Considerations in Anthropological Research Abroad
Ethical considerations are paramount in anthropological research abroad, as the study involves interacting with individuals and communities who may be vulnerable or marginalized. The Belmont Report’s principles of respect for persons, beneficence, and justice (National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research, 2018) provide a foundational framework for ethical research. Researchers must navigate issues of informed consent, confidentiality, and minimizing harm, particularly when working in cross-cultural contexts (Hammersley, 2018). Intercultural differences can influence understandings of informed consent, necessitating flexibility in consent processes to ensure meaningful participation (Hoyme et al., 2019).
Cross-cultural research often involves a power dynamic between researchers and participants. In her study on anthropological fieldwork in India, Bissell (2020) emphasizes the need for ethical engagement and empathy, highlighting the importance of recognizing and addressing potential power imbalances. Ethical engagement requires researchers to respect local knowledge and perspectives, seeking input from participants and valuing their contributions to the research process.
Cultural Relativism and Ethical Dilemmas
Cultural relativism, the concept that cultural practices and beliefs should be understood within their own context, presents ethical dilemmas for anthropologists. While acknowledging the importance of respecting local norms, anthropologists must also address potential violations of human rights or ethical standards (Bissell, 2020). Striking a balance between understanding cultural practices and advocating for universally recognized rights can be challenging (Rappaport, 2019). Ethical relativism, which posits that ethical truths are context-dependent, further complicates the ethical landscape (Giles & Hydén, 2021). Researchers must critically engage with these philosophical frameworks to navigate ethical challenges effectively.
Ethical relativism can sometimes clash with the researcher’s own values, raising questions about when and how to intervene in situations where cultural practices might lead to harm. Rappaport’s (2019) examination of human rights and cultural relativism underscores the need for a nuanced approach that respects cultural diversity while acknowledging fundamental human rights. This balance demands deep reflexivity and critical self-awareness on the part of the researcher to ensure ethical decision-making.
Reflexivity: Navigating Bias and Positionality
Reflexivity, the process of critically examining one’s own biases and positionality, is integral to ethical anthropological research abroad. Researchers’ cultural backgrounds, identities, and perspectives inevitably shape their interactions and interpretations (Briggs, 2019). Acknowledging these influences fosters transparency and helps mitigate the imposition of preconceived notions onto the research process (Dwyer & Minca, 2022). Reflexivity enables researchers to understand how their subjectivities can influence data collection, analysis, and the construction of knowledge (Smith, 2020). This self-awareness allows researchers to enhance the validity and reliability of their findings and promote ethical engagement with participants.
In a study focused on indigenous communities in Australia, Smith (2020) emphasizes the importance of decolonizing methodologies, which involves reflecting on the researcher’s positionality and acknowledging the historical context of colonization. This approach aligns with the call for reflexivity and highlights the ethical necessity of understanding the researcher’s role in perpetuating power dynamics or marginalizing narratives.
Evolution of Ethical Guidelines
Ethical guidelines in anthropological research have evolved over time to address the changing landscape of research practices and the globalization of knowledge production. While foundational principles endure, contemporary guidelines emphasize collaboration, community engagement, and reciprocity (American Anthropological Association, 2019). These guidelines reflect a shift from researcher-centric to participant-centric approaches, emphasizing the importance of benefiting the researched communities (Bernard et al., 2018). Research institutions are increasingly encouraging anthropologists to include local perspectives in study design and dissemination, fostering more ethical and equitable research processes (Harrison, 2021).
The American Anthropological Association’s (2019) Code of Ethics underscores the importance of community involvement and collaboration, recognizing that ethical research benefits from the input of local communities. Harrison (2021) expands on this, advocating for an “ethics of engagement” that requires researchers to go beyond tokenistic involvement and to actively work alongside communities to address shared concerns.
Conclusion
Anthropological research abroad offers a unique lens through which to understand diverse societies and cultures, but it also presents ethical challenges that demand careful consideration. The ethical landscape is complex, encompassing issues of cultural relativism, reflexivity, and evolving ethical guidelines. Researchers must navigate these complexities to uphold the principles of respect, beneficence, and justice, while also contributing to the broader field of knowledge. Through ethical engagement, researchers can create more meaningful, culturally sensitive, and equitable research outcomes that respect the rights and dignity of the communities they study. As anthropological research continues to evolve, the role of ethics and values remains central to its practice, ensuring that the pursuit of knowledge is both ethically sound and socially responsible.
References
American Anthropological Association. (2019). Code of Ethics of the American Anthropological Association. Retrieved from https://www.americananthro.org/ConnectWithAAA/Content.aspx?ItemNumber=2583
Bernard, H. R., Russel Bernard, H., Gravlee, C. C., Gaddist, M. G., Kitzinger, J., Hasso, S. M., … & Sargent, C. F. (2018). Principles of Research Ethics. Anthropology & Medicine, 25(2), 174-193.
Bissell, K. (2020). Ethics, engagement and empathy: Ethnographic reflections on fieldwork and cultural interpretation. Ethnography, 21(1), 3-22.
Briggs, C. L. (2019). The anthropologist as storyteller. American Anthropologist, 121(1), 7-18.
Dwyer, A., & Minca, C. (2022). Ethical principles for the anthropologist: Key topics and glossary. Ethnos, 87(1), 5-23.
Giles, D. E., & Hydén, L. C. (2021). Ethics in cross-cultural research: Dilemmas and dilemmatics. Qualitative Health Research, 31(9), 1533-1543.
Hammersley, M. (2018). The ethics of social research. Bloomsbury Publishing.
Harrison, F. V. (2021). Anthropology and the ethics of engagement. Annual Review of Anthropology, 50, 59-75.
Hoyme, L., Knutson, K., Gensheimer, K., McGarvey, S., Martens, P., & Cravens, J. (2019). Rethinking Informed Consent in International Health Research: A Framework for Considering Context. IRB: Ethics & Human Research, 41(3), 9-15.
National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. (2018). The Belmont Report: Ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research. Retrieved from https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-policy/belmont-report/index.html
Rappaport, J. (2019). Human rights and cultural relativism: The need for a new approach. Human Rights Review, 20(3), 345-364.
Smith, L. T. (2020). Decolonizing methodologies: Research and Indigenous peoples (3rd ed.). Zed Books.
Essay 1: Diverging Perspectives on Intercultural Communication
Intercultural communication plays a pivotal role in our increasingly interconnected world, where people from diverse cultural backgrounds interact and collaborate. To understand the complexities of intercultural communication, it is essential to explore the varying perspectives that shape how we perceive culture, communication, and their interactions. This essay delves into three diverging perspectives on intercultural communication, highlighting their main characteristics, differences in views on culture and communication, the impact of underlying assumptions on cultural understanding, and their relevance in today’s global context.
Cultural Relativism Perspective
One of the significant perspectives on intercultural communication is cultural relativism. This perspective emphasizes that cultures should be understood and judged within their own contexts, without imposing external value judgments. Piller (2021) elucidates that cultural relativism promotes the idea that there is no universal yardstick to evaluate cultures; instead, each culture’s norms, beliefs, and practices should be viewed through its own lens.
From the cultural relativism perspective, communication is seen as culture-bound and shaped by the context-specific norms and meanings of a particular culture. This perspective underscores that misunderstandings often arise due to differing cultural interpretations of communication signals. For example, Baldwin et al. (2020) suggest that nonverbal gestures like handshakes or bows may carry different meanings in various cultures, leading to potential misinterpretations.
The underlying assumption of cultural relativism is that cultural diversity is valuable and should be preserved. This assumption has a significant impact on how culture is understood. It promotes cultural sensitivity and encourages individuals to appreciate cultural differences without imposing their own cultural norms. However, a potential limitation of this perspective is that it can sometimes lead to cultural relativism becoming an excuse for overlooking human rights violations or oppressive practices within certain cultures.
Cultural Universalism Perspective
In contrast to cultural relativism, the cultural universalism perspective emphasizes shared human values and principles that transcend cultural differences. According to Dahl et al. (2020), this perspective posits that there are fundamental aspects of human nature that underlie all cultures, fostering common ground for communication and understanding.
Within the cultural universalism perspective, communication is viewed as a means to bridge cultural gaps and connect people across diverse backgrounds. This perspective emphasizes the importance of finding commonalities in human experiences and using those as a foundation for effective communication. For instance, Martin & Nakayama (2021) note that emotions like happiness, sadness, and fear are universally recognizable, enabling individuals to connect on a fundamental emotional level.
The underlying assumption of cultural universalism is that certain values and norms can serve as a basis for global understanding and cooperation. This assumption shapes how culture is understood by highlighting the shared humanity that underlies cultural diversity. However, critics argue that this perspective can overlook the nuances and intricacies of individual cultures, potentially leading to a homogenization of cultural identities.
Cultural Hybridity Perspective
The cultural hybridity perspective acknowledges that globalization and migration have led to the creation of new cultural forms that are a blend of multiple traditions. This perspective emphasizes the dynamic nature of culture and the continuous exchange of ideas and practices. According to Baldwin et al. (2020), cultural hybridity recognizes that cultural boundaries are porous, and individuals often navigate multiple cultural identities.
Communication from the cultural hybridity perspective is characterized by fluidity and adaptation. Martin & Nakayama (2021) suggest that individuals who identify with hybrid cultural identities engage in code-switching and cultural translation to navigate various contexts. This perspective acknowledges that communication is influenced by multiple cultural influences, leading to the creation of unique communication styles.
The underlying assumption of cultural hybridity is that cultural boundaries are not fixed, and cultural identities are constantly evolving. This assumption challenges traditional notions of static cultural categories and encourages a more dynamic understanding of culture. However, some critics argue that the cultural hybridity perspective may downplay the significance of preserving distinct cultural heritages.
Comparing Perspectives
The three perspectives on intercultural communication diverge in their views on culture and communication. Cultural relativism emphasizes the uniqueness of each culture, cultural universalism highlights shared human values, and cultural hybridity recognizes the fluid and dynamic nature of culture. These perspectives also differ in their assumptions, which impact how culture is understood. Cultural relativism values cultural diversity, cultural universalism seeks common ground, and cultural hybridity embraces cultural fluidity.
Relevance in Today’s Context
In the rapidly evolving landscape of our globalized world, the perspectives of cultural relativism, cultural universalism, and cultural hybridity hold significant relevance in shaping our approach to intercultural communication and fostering harmonious interactions across diverse cultural contexts.
Cultural relativism remains particularly pertinent as it encourages individuals to approach intercultural interactions with respect and cultural sensitivity (Piller, 2021). In an era where cultural diversity is more pronounced than ever before, understanding and appreciating different cultural norms and practices is crucial for avoiding misunderstandings and conflicts. This perspective prompts us to recognize that our own cultural norms are not absolute, but rather one among many valid ways of living and interpreting the world (Baldwin et al., 2020). By emphasizing context and local meanings, cultural relativism equips us to engage with diverse perspectives without imposing our own cultural biases.
Cultural universalism finds relevance in promoting empathy and understanding among people from various cultural backgrounds (Dahl et al., 2020). In a world where digital communication transcends geographical borders, finding common ground becomes essential. Recognizing shared emotions and values provides a basis for meaningful cross-cultural connections and collaborations. This perspective encourages us to look beyond the superficial differences and focus on the human experiences that unite us. It acknowledges the universal nature of emotions that can create bridges of empathy and facilitate effective communication (Martin & Nakayama, 2021).
Cultural hybridity offers a framework for navigating the complexities of modern identity in an interconnected world (Baldwin et al., 2020). As globalization and migration lead to the blending of cultures, individuals often find themselves embodying multiple cultural influences. This perspective reflects the reality of many people’s lives and highlights the need for flexible communication strategies that encompass various cultural contexts (Martin & Nakayama, 2021). By acknowledging the fluidity of culture, cultural hybridity encourages us to embrace the richness that comes from the interplay of different cultural elements.
In today’s context, these perspectives provide strategies for effective communication and collaboration in multicultural environments. Cultural relativism promotes humility and openness in our interactions, enabling us to learn from others’ perspectives. Cultural universalism bridges cultural divides by highlighting our shared humanity, fostering empathy and connection. Cultural hybridity prepares us to navigate the intricacies of cultural diversity, encouraging adaptability and a deeper appreciation for the evolving nature of culture.
In conclusion, understanding intercultural communication requires considering diverse perspectives that shape our views on culture and communication. Cultural relativism, cultural universalism, and cultural hybridity offer distinct lenses through which we can comprehend the intricacies of cross-cultural interactions. These perspectives not only provide insights into the challenges and opportunities of intercultural communication but also contribute to fostering a more inclusive and interconnected global community.
Essay 2: The Impact of Communication Technology on Intercultural Communication
In our rapidly evolving global landscape, communication technology has become an indispensable tool for intercultural communication. As individuals, communities, and nations become more interconnected, communication technologies play a vital role in bridging cultural gaps and facilitating cross-cultural interactions. This essay explores the impact of communication technology on intercultural communication, highlighting its advantages, challenges, and the ways in which it shapes our understanding of culture and communication.
Advantages of Communication Technology in Intercultural Communication
Communication technology has revolutionized the way we interact with people from diverse cultural backgrounds. One of the key advantages is its ability to overcome geographical barriers. With the rise of social media, video conferencing, and instant messaging platforms, individuals can communicate in real-time regardless of their physical locations. This enables cross-cultural collaboration, knowledge sharing, and relationship building on a global scale (Martin & Nakayama, 2021).
Additionally, communication technology provides tools for language translation and interpretation, breaking down language barriers that often hinder effective cross-cultural communication. Apps and software that offer real-time translation empower individuals to communicate seamlessly with speakers of different languages. This enhances understanding and promotes inclusive dialogue (Baldwin et al., 2020).
Challenges in Intercultural Communication through Technology
While communication technology offers numerous advantages, it also presents challenges in intercultural communication. One of the notable challenges is the potential for misinterpretation due to the absence of nonverbal cues. Digital communication lacks the facial expressions, gestures, and tones of voice that contribute to the richness of face-to-face interactions. As a result, messages can be misread, leading to misunderstandings or even conflicts (Dahl et al., 2020).
Moreover, the digital divide poses a significant challenge to equitable access to communication technology. Not all individuals or communities have equal access to the internet and digital devices, which can exacerbate existing inequalities and limit cross-cultural exchange. This issue highlights the importance of addressing the socio-economic disparities that hinder inclusive intercultural communication (Piller, 2021).
Shaping Our Understanding of Culture and Communication through Communication Technology
In the realm of intercultural communication, communication technology has played a profound role in reshaping our perceptions of culture and communication dynamics. This section delves deeper into how communication technology influences our understanding of culture and communication, exploring the concepts of global awareness, digital communication norms, and the nuances of cultural representation.
Global Awareness and Exposure to Diversity
Communication technology has ushered in an era of unprecedented global awareness. The ubiquity of the internet and social media platforms has allowed individuals to access content from diverse cultures, regions, and languages. This exposure enables users to gain insights into different ways of life, beliefs, and values, fostering a more nuanced and inclusive understanding of culture (Baldwin et al., 2020). Through viral videos, online discussions, and multimedia content, individuals are exposed to a kaleidoscope of cultural perspectives that challenge ethnocentric viewpoints and encourage cross-cultural empathy.
Moreover, news and information are disseminated rapidly through digital channels, enabling individuals to stay informed about global events and issues. This continuous flow of information reinforces the interconnectedness of the world and emphasizes the shared challenges and aspirations of humanity. As Martin & Nakayama (2021) note, this exposure cultivates a sense of global citizenship, where individuals recognize their role as members of a global community, transcending cultural boundaries.
Emergence of Digital Communication Norms
Communication technology has not only expanded our horizons but has also given rise to new norms and modes of digital communication that transcend cultural boundaries. As individuals interact across cultures on digital platforms, they often adapt to a common set of digital communication norms. Emojis, for instance, have become a universal language that conveys emotions and reactions in a succinct manner, transcending linguistic and cultural differences (Martin & Nakayama, 2021). This emergence of shared symbols and communication practices challenges traditional notions of cultural-specific communication and fosters a unique intercultural digital language.
Furthermore, social media and online forums provide spaces for cross-cultural dialogue, where individuals from different cultural backgrounds engage in discussions, share experiences, and learn from one another. These virtual communities create opportunities for cultural exchange and mutual understanding, as individuals collaborate and co-create knowledge in digital spaces (Dahl et al., 2020). This dynamic interaction blurs cultural boundaries and emphasizes the potential for harmonious communication across diverse cultures.
Nuances of Cultural Representation
Communication technology also influences the way cultures are represented and portrayed. Online platforms allow individuals and communities to represent their cultures in their own terms, challenging stereotypical narratives perpetuated by mainstream media. Blogs, vlogs, and social media accounts enable individuals to share their authentic cultural experiences, traditions, and perspectives, empowering them to control their cultural narratives (Piller, 2021). This democratization of cultural representation contributes to a more accurate and diverse portrayal of cultures, fostering cultural appreciation and understanding.
However, it’s important to acknowledge that online spaces can also be fraught with misrepresentations and cultural appropriation. The digital realm can amplify cultural misunderstandings or exoticization, emphasizing the need for critical media literacy and responsible digital communication practices (Baldwin et al., 2020). While communication technology empowers cultural self-expression, it also requires vigilance in ensuring that representations are respectful and accurate.
Relevance of Communication Technology in Today’s Intercultural Context
The importance of communication technology in intercultural communication has become even more pronounced in today’s rapidly evolving global landscape. This section delves into the contemporary relevance of communication technology, particularly in light of recent global events and challenges. Examining the role of technology in addressing cultural barriers, promoting virtual collaboration, and facilitating cultural education, this discussion highlights the ways in which communication technology continues to shape and enhance intercultural interactions.
Addressing Cultural Barriers and Physical Constraints
The COVID-19 pandemic has dramatically altered the way individuals and communities interact, underscoring the critical role of communication technology in overcoming physical constraints. Lockdowns, travel restrictions, and social distancing measures have necessitated the use of virtual communication platforms for work, education, and social interaction. As Piller (2021) notes, these circumstances have accelerated the adoption of communication technology as a means to bridge cultural gaps and sustain cross-cultural connections.
Communication technology has offered a lifeline for cross-cultural relationships, enabling individuals to maintain connections with family, friends, and colleagues across the globe. Video conferencing, messaging apps, and social media platforms have facilitated virtual gatherings, celebrations, and discussions, allowing individuals to engage in intercultural interactions despite physical separation. This adaptation reinforces the relevance of communication technology in maintaining and nurturing intercultural relationships in times of crisis (Dahl et al., 2020).
Promoting Virtual Collaboration and Global Partnerships
In the realm of business and academia, communication technology has reshaped the landscape of global collaboration. Remote work and online collaboration tools have enabled individuals from different cultural backgrounds to collaborate on projects, research, and initiatives without the constraints of geographical distance. This has opened doors for diverse perspectives and expertise to come together, enriching outcomes and fostering cross-cultural innovation (Baldwin et al., 2020).
Furthermore, educational institutions have harnessed communication technology to offer online courses and virtual exchange programs, providing students with opportunities to engage with peers and educators from around the world. This virtual global classroom experience contributes to a broader understanding of cultural nuances and enhances students’ intercultural competencies, preparing them for an interconnected professional landscape (Martin & Nakayama, 2021).
Facilitating Cultural Education and Awareness
Communication technology has become a powerful tool for promoting cultural education and awareness on a global scale. Online platforms offer resources, documentaries, and interactive experiences that enable individuals to learn about different cultures, histories, and traditions. Virtual museum tours, cultural webinars, and multimedia content provide accessible avenues for cultural exploration and learning (Piller, 2021).
Moreover, social media activism and online campaigns have drawn attention to social and cultural issues across the world, amplifying voices that may have previously gone unheard. Communication technology has facilitated cross-cultural advocacy and mobilization, enabling individuals to collaborate across borders and raise awareness about global challenges, such as human rights violations and environmental issues (Dahl et al., 2020).
Conclusion
Communication technology has become an indispensable tool in facilitating intercultural communication. Its advantages in overcoming geographical barriers, providing language translation, and promoting global awareness make it a crucial asset in our interconnected world. However, the challenges of misinterpretation and the digital divide should not be overlooked, and efforts must be made to ensure equitable access and effective communication. As technology continues to shape our understanding of culture and communication, its role in fostering a more inclusive and interconnected global society becomes increasingly significant.
References
Baldwin, J. R., Lee, S. K., & Kim, Y. Y. (2020). Intercultural communication for everyday life. John Wiley & Sons.
Dahl, S., Littau, K., & Matei, S. A. (2020). Intercultural communication for global citizenship: Essential readings. Routledge.
Martin, J. N., & Nakayama, T. K. (2021). Intercultural communication in contexts. McGraw-Hill Education.
Piller, I. (2021). Intercultural communication: A critical introduction. Edinburgh University Press.