Evaluating a Research Report

Evaluating a Research Report

Introduction

Research studies are important in enhancing the understanding of various aspects that affect people in their daily life. It provides more information about the occurrences and the way things do happen. For a research study to be credible and understandable, it is crucial that it addresses various aspects required. Furthermore, it must be well written to enhance understanding. This paper evaluates Luck’s thesis, which sought to find out the effects of personality characteristics and various aspects of genetic counseling in compassion fatigue, satisfaction and burnout. The paper provides a summary of the results and an evaluation of some of the gaps the study has investigated.

The study is guided by various research questions not stated directly but through the aims the researcher wants to achieve. The first question was assessing the interest and impact personality characteristics of genetic counselor have on compassion fatigue, satisfaction and burnout. Second was to find out the personality characteristics of perfectionism controlling and the desire to be liked predicted and increased risk of burnout and compassion fatigue (Luck, 2009). The third was to find out whether there was a specific area of genetic counseling more prone to compassion fatigue, satisfaction and burnout and lastly to investigate on the personality profile of genetic counselor s that had higher self reported compassion satisfaction.

The results which were obtained from the questionnaires, professional quality of life scale that measures satisfaction, compassion fatigue and burnout and the international personality item pool which measure the big five personality characteristics including agreeableness, openness, extroversion , conscientiousness and neuroticism evolved different findings. It was revealed that participants involved with counselors who had high risk for compassion fatigue and burnout were more likely to be neurotic, conscientious and agreeable (Luck, 2009). On the other hand, genetic counselors that are likely to experience high level of satisfaction in their tasks are agreeable, extroverts, conscientious and not neurotic (Luck, 2009). Furthermore, it was revealed that different counselors in different areas of practice experience satisfaction, compassion fatigue and burnout equally. It was also reveled that as long as a counselor has personality trait, this is likely to make the counselor to experience burnout, satisfaction and compassion (Luck, 2009). Therefore, in summary, the results indicated that experiences of satisfaction, compassion and burnout happen differently because of various factors such as the nature of clients that the counselors handle among many other reasons.

A research study or thesis is required to have a certain form and style of presenting information. Every section is required to have particular information content, extensively and concisely presented to enhance understanding (Blevins, 2007). Luck’s thesis has to some extent adhered to this structure but it is not well adhered to. Though the introduction provides background information about the areas and provides the purpose of the study, it does not state why the report is different from the previous publications. This is a mistake which should have been avoided to ensure that the report stands out from the previous studies. This therefore makes this report seem similar with the previous reports.

The literature review is an important section as it helps the researcher to build up his own thesis by relating to other previous studies (Blevins, 2007). The researcher precisely covers this section. However, there is no synthesis of information to indicate understanding of the researcher. Furthermore, the summary of the literature review is not provided making the research lack in effectiveness.

Methodology is yet another important section of the thesis because the method of collecting and analyzing information is essential in determining whether the researcher is credible or not. Unfortunately the report has not established the validity and reliability of the study and this is a shortcoming of this report. Furthermore, in data analysis there should be appropriate use of tables and figures to enhance the level of understanding. Tables, graphs and figures are essential tools to present information to ensure that it is well understand by the users of the reports. This is absent in the report.

In line with the above, there are various common errors that are made by the researcher which otherwise could have been avoided. There are different writing styles that researchers need to be acquainted to and to stick to when presenting their information such as Modern language association, American psychological association, Harvard, Chicago among many others. In this study, the author used APA style but she did not use it appropriately and this affected his overall presentation of information. The biggest and most common error in the report is the in-text citation. The author failed to cite properly as she included initials in some of her in-text citation, a mistake that could have been avoided. There are also some grammatical errors that went unrecognized which could be avoided through editing.

Though the research report even contained some errors here and there, it managed to stick to its course. The most impressive section was the conclusion where she managed to summarize the major aspects of the study and provided recommendation for further studies. However, some of the errors in the report could not have been committed if the researcher took her time to go through the report.

References

Blevins, L. (2007). Checklist for evaluating a research report. Retrieved form: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/pe/exs514web/How2Evalarticles.htm

Luck, T. (2009). The Effect of Personality Characteristics and Various Aspects of Genetic Counseling on Compassion Fatigue, Satisfaction, and Burnout, Howard University; Washington D.C.

Action Research and Evidence Based Practice

Action Research and Evidence Based Practice

Introduction

Evidence Based Practice seeks for and promotes the improvement of psychology practice through the utilization of the best available evidence. Evidence Based Practice is considered an important tool for the development of psychology study if the practice is carefully thought and combined with research and theoretical reflection (Bauer, 2007). It has been argued that action research, a qualitative method can help to achieve a state of equilibrium between theories and empirical studies as it acts as a dialogue between and abstract ideas and the facts and signs provided by concrete experiences (Flood, 2001). This is a research providing a critical review about the purposes and applications of action research into evidence based practice.

Action research has been termed as a way for intentional learning from experience (Reason& Bradbury, 2004). Action research is intended to improve the efficacy or working conditions of the practitioner. The purposes of action research include solving a challenge experienced by the practitioner, or investigating a phenomenon that the practitioner has noticed in the course of the working period.

As opposed to evidence based practice which prefers on explicit ways of conducting practice (Bauer, 2007), action research uses action-reflection cycles that are somewhat intuitive. Nevertheless, action research can help in the production of validated explanation of the practitioners’ influence in their own learning, the learning of others, and the learning of social systems in which they work and live in (Reason& Bradbury, 2004). A way by which action research can be integrated into evidence based psychology practice is by taking into account psychology that exists in abstract generalizations of propositional theories and applying them to practice.

According to Flood (2001) action research often calls for inquiry or reflection on whether the action taken is the most effective one. This process, if effectively undertaken and integrated in evidence based practice will help to utilize the best available evidence in combination with a pragmatic perspective adopted from working experiences in psychology. After all, evidence based practice emphasizes on the pursuit of the best available evidence regardless of whether quantitative or qualitative methods were used in seeking this evidence.

In my view, the purposes and applications of action research into evidence based practice are well aligned. Action research stems from perspectives that have or are being experienced by the practitioner, and if used and proven to give a desirable action, then it suits the goal of evidence based practice. Whereas practitioners have already recognized the need to shape and inform routine clinical practice with external evidence, action research is a process is by which reflection can be used to improve practice (Flood, 2001). Action-reflection cycle involves a focus on values put forward in expressions of concern that a practitioner wishes to improve. It leads to the establishment of action plans, which involve acting and gathering information about the effectiveness of the chosen actions. Furthermore, the effectiveness of the actions can be evaluated, and concerns can be modified depending with the findings of the evaluation (Flood, 2001).

Conclusion

Evidence based practice is mostly favored in psychology practice for its ability to effect change within the health care where practitioners are able to make explicit, conscious and judicious use of current evidence in clinical practice. Yet, there have been suggestions to combine action research, which is based on rather implicit, self-reflective methods that practitioners can use to establish the most effective action in practice. The purposes and applications of action research into evidence based practice should be accepted and embraced in the sense that they allow a critical reflection/evaluation of the methods that practitioners use while applying evidence in practice.

References:

Bauer, R. (2007). Evidence-based practice in psychology: Implications for research and training. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 63(7), pp. 685-694.

Flood, R., L. (2001). The relationship of ‘systems thinking’ to action research, in P. Reason and H. Bradbury (eds) Handbook of Action Research: Participative Inquiry and Practice. Sage: London.

Reason, P., & Bradbury, H. (2004).The abridged handbook of action research. London: Sage Publications

Nutritional requirements during the pregnancy

Nutritional requirements during the pregnancy

Definition

Pregnancy mothers are required to eat selected food rich in nutrients to ensure that they promote their own health and that of the fetus and at the same time protect themselves from complication. Nutritional diets concern eating food diets that are rich in various nutritional levels.

Prognosis

Pregnant mothers require food rich in minerals and vitamins for themselves and for their baby. They are also required to take food that are low in empty calories obtained from food such a soft drinks solid fats, added sugars, fried foods, whole milk, cheese, and fatty meats (Wallis & Sadftlas, 2008). The food choices should also be fat free and should have no or fewer calories (United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) (2013). It is also advised for these pregnancy mothers to take prenatal mineral and vitamins in addition to eating healthy diets to ensure that the baby gets important and necessary nutrients such as iron and folic acid. The foods need to be consumed in moderations moderation. Furthermore, pregnancy women are not required to drink alcohol and engage in smoking as these may have developmental and behavioral problem to the baby. It may even result to more severe complications to children such as mental retardation and malformation (Wallis & Sadftlas, 2008).

Special nutritional requirements to prevent preeclampsia

Preeclampsia is a syndrome associated with high blood pressure and protein in the urine. This condition causes complications in the fetus such as prematurity and growth restrictions. Redundancy growth is due to reduced blood flow to placenta and this leads to shortage in nutrition supply to the fetus (Wallis & Sadftlas, 2008). This therefore led to small baby and premature birth. Nutritional interventions have been cited to help reduce the risk of developing preeclampsia. The pregnancy mother should take calcium and fiber (Hofmeyr et al. 2007). Those at risk furthermore, need to consume enough dairy products, vegetables and fruits before and during pregnancy. Women should also be encouraged to take selenium found in foods such as fortified cereal, grains and Brazil nuts. Those with low levels of selenium have higher chances-4 times of suffering from preeclampsia compared to those that have higher levels (Rayman et al 2003).

References

Hofmeyr, G., Duley, L., & Atallah, A. (2007). Dietary calcium supplementation for prevention of pre-eclampsia and related problems: A systematic review and commentary, BJOG 114(8): 933-943

Rayman, M/. Bode, P., & Redman, C. (2003). Low selenium status is associated with the occurrence of the pregnancy disease preeclampsia in women from the United Kingdom, American journal of Obstetrics and gynecology, 189(5): 1343-1349.

United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). (2013). Nutritional needs during pregnancy. Retrieved from: http://www.choosemyplate.gov/pregnancy-breastfeeding/pregnancy- nutritional-needs.html

Willis, A/. & Saftlas, A. (2008). A gram or prevention: a modest increase in fiber consumption may reduce risk of preeclampsia. American journal of hypertension, 21(8): 849-850.

Further Analytical Methods for Engineers

Further Analytical Methods for Engineers: Analyse and Model Engineering Situations and Solve Problems Using Number Systems

TASK 1

V (VOLTS)	I (AMPERE)	V / I = R (RESISTANCE)	IV = P (POWER)
23.94324	0.798108	30	19.109291
24.00423	0.800141	30	19.206769
23.00425	0.766808	30	17.639843
24.60483	0.820161	30	20.179922
24.80422	0.826807	30	20.508303
24.10473	0.803491	30	19.367934
23.82423	0.794141	30	18.919784
23.90474	0.796825	30	19.047894
23.80423	0.793474	30	18.888038
23.78914	0.792971	30	18.864098
25.00252	0.833508	30	20.839800
24.55271	0.818424	30	20.094527
24.43898	0.814633	30	19.908799
24.45216	0.815072	30	19.930271
23.5	0.783333	30	18.408326
24	0.8	30	19.200000
24.64398	0.821466	30	20.244192
23.49992	0.783331	30	18.408216
24.34578	0.811526	30	19.757233

Significant figures
4significant figures

V (VOLTS)	I (AMPERE)	V / I = R (RESISTANCE)	IV = P (POWER)
23.94	0.798	30.00	19.10
24.00	0.800	30.00	19.20
23.00	0.767	29.99	17.64
24.60	0.820	30.00	20.18
24.80	0.827	29.99	20.51
24.10	0.803	30.01	19.37
23.82	0.794	30.00	18.92
23.90	0.797	29.99	19.05
23.80	0.793	30.01	18.89
23.79	0.793	30.00	18.86
25.00	0.834	29.98	20.84
24.55	0.818	30.01	20.09
24.44	0.815	29.99	19.91
24.45	0.815	30.00	19.93
23.50	0.783	30.01	18.41
24.00	0.800	30.00	19.20
24.64	0.821	30.01	20.24
23.50	0.783	30.01	18.41
24.35	0.812	29.99	19.76

2 significant figures

V (VOLTS)	I (AMPERE)	V / I = R (RESISTANCE)	IV = P (POWER)
24	0.8	30	19
24	0.8	30	19
23	0.8	30	18
25	0.8	30	20
25	0.8	30	20
24	0.8	30	19
24	0.8	30	19
24	0.8	30	19
24	0.8	30	19
24	0.8	30	19
25	0.8	30	20
25	0.8	30	20
24	0.8	30	19
24	0.8	30	19
24	0.8	30	19
24	0.8	30	19
25	0.8	30	20
24	0.8	30	19
24	0.8	30	19

1 significant figure

V (VOLTS)	I (AMPERE)	V / I = R (RESISTANCE)	IV = P (POWER)
20	1	20	20
20	1	20	20
20	1	20	20
30	1	30	30
30	1	30	30
20	1	20	20
20	1	20	20
20	1	20	20
20	1	20	20
20	1	20	20
30	1	30	30
30	1	30	30
20	1	20	20
20	1	20	20
20	1	20	20
20	1	20	20
30	1	30	30
20	1	20	20
20	1	20	20

Decimal places
4 decimal points

V (VOLTS)	I (AMPERE)	V / I = R (RESISTANCE)	IV = P (POWER)
23.9432	0.7981	30.0003	19.1091
24.0042	0.8001	30.0015	19.2058
23.0043	0.7668	30.0004	17.6397
24.6048	0.8201	30.0022	20.1784
24.8042	0.8268	30.0002	20.5081
24.1047	0.8035	29.9996	19.3681
23.8242	0.7941	30.0015	18.9188
23.9047	0.7968	30.0009	19.0473
23.8042	0.7935	29.9990	18.8886
23.7891	0.7930	29.9989	18.8648
25.0025	0.8335	29.9970	20.8396
24.5527	0.8184	30.0009	20.0939
24.4390	0.8146	30.0012	19.9080
24.4522	0.8151	29.9990	19.9310
23.5000	0.7833	30.0013	18.4076
24.0000	0.8000	30.0000	19.2000
24.6440	0.8215	29.9988	20.2450
23.4999	0.7833	30.0011	18.4071
24.3458	0.8115	30.0010	19.7566

2 decimal points

V (VOLTS)	I (AMPERE)	V / I = R (RESISTANCE)	IV = P (POWER)
23.94	0.80	29.93	19.15
24.00	0.80	30.00	19.20
23.00	0.77	29.87	17.71
24.60	0.82	30.00	20.17
24.80	0.83	29.88	20.58
24.10	0.80	30.13	19.28
23.82	0.79	30.15	18.82
23.90	0.80	29.88	19.12
23.80	0.79	30.13	18.80
23.79	0.79	30.11	18.79
25.00	0.83	30.12	20.75
24.55	0.82	29.94	20.13
24.44	0.81	30.17	19.80
24.45	0.82	29.82	20.05
23.50	0.78	30.13	18.33
24.00	0.80	30.00	19.20
24.64	0.82	30.05	20.20
23.50	0.78	30.13	18.33
24.35	0.81	30.06	19.72

1 decimal point

V (VOLTS)	I (AMPERE)	V / I = R (RESISTANCE)	IV = P (POWER)
23.9	0.8	29.9	19.1
24.0	0.8	30.0	19.2
23.0	0.8	28.8	18.4
24.6	0.8	30.8	19.7
24.8	0.8	31.0	19.8
24.1	0.8	30.1	19.3
23.8	0.8	29.8	19.0
23.9	0.8	29.9	19.1
23.8	0.8	29.8	19.0
23.8	0.8	29.8	19.0
25.0	0.8	31.3	20.0
24.6	0.8	30.8	19.7
24.4	0.8	30.5	19.5
24.5	0.8	30.6	19.6
23.5	0.8	29.4	18.8
24.0	0.8	30.0	19.2
24.6	0.8	30.8	19.7
23.5	0.8	29.4	18.8
24.4	0.8	30.5	19.5

Plotting the results using Ms excel
Evaluating the results

Power- Resistance graph

An increase in resistance of a conductor leads to an increase in power. Therefore, power is directly proportional to the resistance of the conductor.

Since P = IV and V=I R, therefore P = I * IR hence P = I²R.

This shows that power is the product of the square of current and the resistance.

Current – Voltage graph

An increase in current increases the Voltage across the conductor.

At any instant, taking the gradient of the graph to be K, the equation of the graph is given by

V = V₀+ K (I)

Where V = voltage at that instant, Vo = initial voltage, I = current through the conductor and K is the conductor constant. Since K is the gradient of the V-I graph, and then this is the Resistance of the conductor. (K=R)

Therefore, R = V/I = gradient of the line.

Since the combined resistance in parallel is given by

Assume R₃is much smaller than the rest. Therefore, 1/ R₃ = much larger than others.

Then R = 1/ (small + small + larger), hence the other two large resistances contribute negligibly to the final combination. Therefore, the much smaller resistance contributes much to the total resistance.

When one of the resistances has much smaller value than the other ones which are connected in parallel to it, then total resistance of such a combination will be very nearly equal to this smaller resistance of them all. This equation can be written as,

If R_{1 and}R2>> R₃, then R₁||R₂||R₃ ≈ R₃

When two of the resistances have much smaller values than the other one which is connected in parallel to them, then total resistance of such a combination will be very nearly equal to the parallel combination these two smaller resistances.

This equation can be written as,

If R₁ >> R_{2 and}R₃, then R₁||R₂||R₃ ≈ R₂||R₃

The symbol || stands for the parallel combination of the resistors, the symbols >> means “much greater than,” and the symbol ≈ means “approximately equal to.”

TASK 2

Decimal numbers to binary
81₁₀=

256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

1 then 81-64 = 17

0 then 17 since 32 can’t fit in 17

1 then 17-16 = 1

0 then 1 since 8 can’t fit in 1

0 then 1 since 4 can’t fit in 1

0 then 1 since 2 can’t fit in 1

1 then 1-1 = 0

Therefore, 81₁₀ = 1010001₂

248₁₀ =

256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

1 then 248-128 =120

1 then 120-64=56

1 then 56-32=24

1 then 24-16 =8

1 then 8-8 =0

0 then 0

then 0

Therefore, 248₁₀ = 11111000₂

Octal numbers to binary

Using the conversion table below, then the numbers are;

47₈= 4=100 and 7=111

Hence 47₈=100111

214₈ = 2-100, 1=01 and 4=100

Hence 214₈ = 10001100

Hexadecimal numbers to binary

Decimal	Binary	Octal	Hexadecimal
0	0000	0	0
1	0001	1	1
2	0010	2	2
3	0011	3	3
4	0100	4	4
5	0101	5	5
6	0110	6	6
7	0111	7	7
8	1000	10	8
9	1001	11	9
10	1010	12	A
11	1011	13	B
12	1100	14	C
13	1101	15	D
14	1110	16	E
15	1111	17	F

From using the table above, the values of individual numbers are evaluated and represented as below:

BA3₁₆= 101110100011
F3B4₁₆= 1111001110110100

Binary numbers to decimal numbers

The number 11101101101 represents:
1048576 + 262144 + 65536 + 4096 + 1024 + 64 + 16 + 1
Hence, the answer is: 1
The number 10001101101011 represents:
8192 + 512 + 256 + 64 + 32 + 8 + 2 + 1
Hence, the answer is: 9067
Hexadecimal numbers to octal numbers
3CF2₁₆=

First convert to binary, then convert to octal

3CF2₁₆= 11110011110010

To octal = 36362

B7F23₁₆=

First convert to binary, then convert to octal

B7F23₁₆= 10110111111100100011

To octal = 2677443

Logic circuit for the Boolean expression
Boolean function

7432 = P+Q and 7408 = P*Q and 7400 = 7432*7408= (P+Q)PQ

7428 = Q+R and 7404 = R also, 7428+7404 =7408 = P*Q

Finally, 7400+7408 = 7408 = PQ

Hence the output = PQ

References

Floyd, T. L., & Pownell, E. (2000). Principles of electric circuits. Prentice Hall.

Rabaey, J. M., Chandrakasan, A. P., & Nikolic, B. (2002). Digital integrated circuits (Vol.2). Englewood Cliffs: Prentice hall.

Circuits with feedback and sine wave oscillators

Circuits with feedback and sine wave oscillators

Feedback signal is a signal in which the output signal is sampled then fed back to the input to form error signal that drives the signal. The response gotten in the absence of feedback is different from the one gotten when feedback is present; this is because the feedback is made of some sub circuits which allow a certain percentage of the output signal to modify the effective input signal. There are two types of feedback which include positive feedback and negative feedback. In positive feedback the output signal is sampled then fed back to the input signal this in turn increases the input signal to make it more than it was. The signal fed back to the input signal is in phase with it hence it modifies it positively. This is done to produce oscillation and it can also be referred to as regenerative feedback .Positive feedback is used in oscillator circuits.

In positive feedback the output voltage is routed back to the non inverting terminal of the op-amp. When the inverting input is maintained at zero volts the output voltage will be determined by the polarity and magnitude of the voltage at the non inverting input terminal. If that voltage is positive the op-amp will drive out positive too, feeding that positive voltage back to the non inverting terminal which will result in a positive output. Likewise when the voltage at the non inverting terminal is negative the op-amp will drive out negative too feeding that negative back to the non inverting input and the result will be positive output (Boyce et al. 2010).

In negative feedback the output signal is sampled then fed back to the input signal this in turn decreases the input signal to make it less than it was. The signal fed back to the input signal is out of phase with it hence it dampens the input signal thus modifies it negatively. This can be referred to as degenerative feedback. Negative feedback is used in amplifier circuits.

The op-amp has two inputs; the inverting (-) and the non inverting (+) and one output. The input resistance is very high and the output resistance is very low. The op-amp amplifies the difference in voltages between the two which is called differential input voltage. If we connect the output of an op-amp to the inverting input and apply a voltage signal to the non inverting input we note that as

V input increases V output increases but as V output increases the output signal will be fed back to the inverting input hence decreasing the voltage difference between the inputs which in turn brings

the output down

Q2;

closed loop gain Acl= Vout = A(w)

Vin 1+FA(w)

where F = feedback coefficient=B(beta)

A(w)= frequency dependent gain.

Acl=Av1+Av2+Av3

1+B.A(w)

a)the required feedback factor

Acl =1

B= 1

=0.05

b)Av1+Av2+Av3 =50db

50db=100%

? =150%

=50*150

100

=75%

Q 3)

a) Acl= A(w)

1+B.A(w)

B= A(w) * 1 – 1

Acl. A(w) A(w)

=1 – 1

Acl A(w)

=1 – 1

20 150

=0.043

input resistance R with feedback= R + R*B

=(2 + 2*0.043)K ohms

=2.086K ohms

c) The applied negative feedback improves performance of the op-amp by making it gain stability, linearity, frequency response ,step response etc and it reduces sensitivity to parameters variation due to manufacturing or environment. Positive feedback latches in the state it’s either saturated positive state or saturated negative state. This is known as Hysteresis which can be very useful in comparators. Comparators can be used to produce any square wave from any sort of ramping wave input.

Q5)

The above shows a 2 stage amplifier

Task 2

Q1) An example of a positive feedback is an oscillator. An op-amp consist of two inputs and one output. The positive input is also known as the regenerative input. The feedback circuit in positive feedback is between the positive terminal of the operational amplifier and the output of the amplifier .A positive feedback amplifier consist of a gain A and a feedback circuit with a feedback factor of B. in oscillators part of the output is fed back to the to the input through the feedback circuit. The fed back signal is added to the input by a summer as illustrated above and the summer output acts as the input signal of the amplifier. The difference between a positive (regenerative )and a negative (degenerative ) operational amplifiers is the positive feedback is achieve when the feed back circuit is between the positive terminal of the op amp and the output while that of negative feedback is when that feed back circuit is between the negative terminal and the output.

Q2) Feedback oscillator

Electronic amplifiers are examples of feedback oscillators. They include transistors and

op-amps which is usually connected in a feedback loop with its output fed back to the input through the loop to produce positive or negative feed back. Feedback oscillators can be classified according to the type of frequency selective filter they use in their feedback loop. In RC oscillators the filter is a network of resistors and capacitors. They are mostly used to generate lower frequencies like the audio range. In LC oscillator circuits the filters are a series of inductors and capacitors (Boyce et al. 2010).

Voltage controlled oscillators (VCO)

They are designed so that the oscillation frequency can be varied over some range by an input voltage or current. They are mostly used in phase locked loops in which the oscillator frequency can be locked to the frequency of another oscillator. They are used in modulators, filters and demodulators and forming the basis of frequency synthesizers’ circuits which are used to tune radios and television. The radio frequency VCO’s are usually made by adding the varactor diode to the turned circuit or resonator in an oscillator.

Q3)

The wien bridge is a two stage coupled RC coupled amplifier circuit that has a good stability at its resonant frequency.

Resonant frequency Fr= 1

2pie RC

The wien bridge oscillator uses a series RC circuit connected with a parallel RC of same component values producing phase delay or phase advance circuit depending upon the frequency.

Q4) a).

Fr= 1

2pie RC

R=R1 + R2 = 200+200=400ohms

1 = 1 + 1

Ceqq C1 C2

C= 1 = 1 = 1.06micro ohms

2pieFr 2pie * 150k ohms

gain Gc=GR= 1

SQ ROOT 2

=0.7071

Feedback factor B= R

( 1/jwc) + R

= 200

(1/150k* 1.06*10^-6)+ 200

=0.97

c) Vin=150mVL45Degrees

=0.15(sin 45 + jcos 45)

=0.1061+j 0.1061

R=0.1061

2pie FL=0.10601

L=1.13*10^-7

Vout =2pie FL

=2pie*150k*1.13*10^-7

=106.50mV

Q5)

A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator that uses the mechanical resonance of a vibrating to create an electric signal with very precise frequency. This frequency is used to keep track of time ,

to provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuit and to stabilize frequency for radio transmitters and receiver. Crystal oscillators can be manufactured for oscillation over a wide range of frequencies. Many application calls for a crystal oscillator frequency conveniently related to some other desired frequencies. Comparing crystal oscillators to other oscillators and starting first with the Wien bridge oscillator. It is an electronic oscillator which generates sine waves. The oscillator is based on a bridge circuit ,the bridge consist of four resistors and two capacitors .the oscillator can also be seen as a positive feedback oscillator .it has a resonance frequency given by

1/2pieRC. Transistor phase oscillator uses an N-P-N junction transistor. In the case of phase shift oscillator the output of the feedback network is loaded appreciably by a relatively small resistance of the transistor and hence instead of employing voltage series feedback ,voltage shunt is used for transistors phase shift oscillators .LC oscillators inductors and capacitors are combined in resonating circuits that produces a very good shape and has a quite good frequency stability that is the frequency does not alter so much for changes in the DC supply voltage or ambient temperature. LC oscillators are extensively used in RF signal where variable frequency is required (Boyce et al. (2010). In sweep oscillator this has a linearly changing voltage for almost the whole one cycle .a fast return to the waves original value .This wave shape is useful for changing the frequency of the voltage control oscillator which is an oscillator that can have its frequency varied over a set range by having a variable sweep voltage applied to its control input.

References

Boyce A, Cooke E, Jones R and Weatherill (2010). B –BTEC Level 3 National Engineering Student Book Pearson.

Introduction to Law

Within the court system, jurisdiction refers to the authority granted to a court or any legal body to tackle and make conclusions on legal issues and to mete justice within a specific region of responsibility. While the term is used in legal settings, it can also refer to a specific geographical region to which such influence applies (Hames, Joanne, and Yvonne 2010). The issue of jurisdiction between political divisions such as districts, provinces and states, is captured clearly and elaborately within different legal documents including the constitution (Byrne, Raymond, McCutcheon, Bruton, and Coffey 2009). The circuit and district courts are both areas that require proper and detailed elaboration concerning their jurisdiction. The following section discusses the differences in jurisdiction between the criminal and the civil division in the circuit and district courts.

The Irish judicial structure is made up of numerous court systems, generally headed by the Supreme Court which is the Court of Final Appeal. Circuit courts and district courts form part of this court system. District courts have a lower jurisdiction mainly deal with lesser responsibilities such as holding trials. Conversely, circuit courts do not offer a platform for trials to be heard but only consider appeals for cases tried in the lower courts. An example is the P. Elliot & Co Ltd -v- FCC Elliot Construction Ltd [2012] IEHC 361 that was presented to the High court in 2012. Therefore, a number of different district courts fall under one circuit court (Fahey, Tony, Hayes, and Sinnott 2006). In terms of superiority, the circuit court can be deemed as being advanced when compared to the district court. When federal cases progress up the judicial system, they first pass through the District Court stage that is responsible for general trials (Siegan 2006). In cases at this level, the case is assigned to one judge (Sulmasy 2009). The circuit court has a much wider jurisdiction geographically. Typically, the scope may seem small because it handles about 13 different courts only, but it is imperative to realize that the circuit court system occupies many different buildings and regions in the country. Cases that reach this level are heard in the presence of three judges who are rotated in a regular fashion throughout the circuit.

The different roles of the courts provide a large amount of information on the jurisdiction of the courts concerning civil and criminal activity. These two courts play significantly different roles.

Circuit courts act as the intermediary between district courts and the Supreme Court. Within the Circuit, there are smaller courts such as the Second and Third Circuit that play a similar role but are located in one courthouse (Swift, Roger, and Kinealy 2006). The District Court is limited to acting in a specific geographic area where they hear general legal issues as well as disputes to federal laws. Examples of general cases include D.P.P. -v- George Redmond [2004] IECCA 15 and Robinson, D.P.P. (People) v.[2008] IECCA 126. Once a judge has made a ruling, discontented parties may appeal these cases. While district courts make rulings and issue sentences, the Circuit Court cannot do the same. Instead, Circuit Courts become active when they receive a filed appeal whose main duty is to handle appeal cases (Pfander 2011). Most of these cases are concerned with parties that challenge the current laws and the extent of their legality. In this case, disgruntled parties have to be heard at the Circuit Court before they progress to the Supreme Court. These cases are very rare such as the Bank of Ireland Mortgage Bank -v- Coleman [2009] IESC 38 that was remitted to the high court later. In the same fashion, the Supreme Court also refers different cases to the Circuit Court or the District Court for assessment.

In terms of civil and criminal duties, district courts have jurisdiction over national matters such as cases involving understanding federal law or cases involving federal statutes. Circuit courts are highly significant because they are the key parties in setting legal precedents. The Donoghue v Stevenson[1932] AC 562 case set a binding precedent concerning manufacturers’ responsibility over the products consumed by their clients. (Daly 2006). The Irish Supreme Court addresses a remarkably small percentage of the cases it is given, and most of them are sent back to the circuit courts that are responsible for setting legal standards when they rule over appeals (König, Thomas, and Hug 2006). Therefore, most of the federal issues are tackled first by the district court before they reach the circuit court (Wright and Kane 2011). Similarly, the district court handles cases from all over the states in which they are located making them have a wider jurisdiction compared to circuit courts.

DCU Annihilation Bill

The Oireachtas refers to the national parliament within Ireland that is responsible for passing bills into law as well as making other constitutional changes. Before a bill is passed into law, it has to be approved by the three arms of the Oireachtas: the president, the Seanad and the Dáil (Gallagher, Michael, and Marsh 2011). Every bill must pass five main stages before they can be considered part of the law. While state bills do not have to be published, bills from private members need publishing before they can be formally acknowledged as having been received. Most bills are usually valid enough to pass this stage. The next stage involves a common debate on the elements of the bill where the members of parliament note different relevant aspects of the Bill that may require amendment (Strøm, Kaare, Bergman and Müller 2003). The third stage called the committee stage is characterized by an examination of the different sections of the bill. In this stage, the floor is open for the House to make amendments to the bill. Nonetheless, only ministers (Seanad) have the privilege of proposing amendments in the lower or upper House that would have adverse effects on other parties (Donlan 2010).

The fourth stage, popularly referred to as the report stage, is marked with further changes that come up from the third stage. At this fourth stage, little changes are made as they cannot be allowed to influence the bill (Kelly 2007). Lastly, in the fifth stage, the debate within the house is restricted to the bill only. Regularly, the members of parliament can opt to vote on certain issues by separating with the intention of forming two lobbies, one faction that votes for that issue while another that votes against the issue. A difference here is that the same bill will undergo the same five stages in the second house after successfully completing the first house. After the bill has been passed by both houses, the Taoiseach prepares a copy under the supervision of the Houses of the Oireachtas. This final version is delivered to the president who is expected to sign it and promulgate it as law.

Options for the President

Within the constitution, several articles that exist explicitly state that, in the event that a bill is brought before the president for signing, he or she may, after discussions with the Council of State, declare that the several provisions or the whole Bill to be unconstitutional with the backing of the Supreme Court (Hazell & Rawlings 2005). The time limit for allowing the Supreme Court to make legal speculations into the claims is seven days. This means that the Supreme Court has to assess the president’s reasons to confirm their validity. In the event that the claims are validated, the President can decline to assent to the bill (Dür, Andreas, and Mateo 2008). The ‘Protection of Life during Pregnancy’ bill was one such instance that required the president’s assent before it could become law. In this case, the Bill will be returned to the first and second house for in-depth debates and inspection to make the necessary amendments before it can be brought back to the president (Low, Peter, Jeffries, and Bradley 2011). Another major reason for the president not signing a bill into law can be a petition. In this case, the larger part of the Seanad and a third of the Dáil can lobby the President in an attempt to block the bill from being signed (Hunt, Brian, and Roscoe 2007).

The most common reason is that the bill contains matters of national importance that require the assent of the people that are typically represented by the President. In this case, he or she may agree not to sign the bill until further consultations are made with the Council of State (Coakley, John, and Gallagher 2005). However, even though the Council plays an advisory role, the president must make the decision alone. In such situations mentioned above, the President has the right to decline from signing into law the bill unless a referendum, a general election or a consensus is reached among the Council of State (Carolan 2012). Changes made by the government to the constitution must be approved by the Irish citizens in a referendum (Duffy 2009). After the bill is passed in the referendum, the president is obliged to sign the bill for the amendment to be complete.

References

Byrne, Raymond, J. Paul McCutcheon, Claire Bruton, and Gerard Coffey. 2009. The Irish legal system. Haywards Heath [England]: Bloomsbury Professional.

Carolan, Eoin. 2012. The Constitution of Ireland: perspectives and prospects.

Coakley, John, and Michael Gallagher. 2005. Politics in the Republic of Ireland. London: Routledge

Daly, Mary E. 2006. The slow failure population decline and independent Ireland, 1922-1973. Madison, Wis: University of Wisconsin Press.

Donlan, Seán Patrick. 2010. “”All This Together make up Our Common Law”: Legal Hybridity in England and Ireland, 1704-1804″. Mixed Legal Systems at New Frontiers.265-302.

Duffy, Stephen M. 2009. The integrity of Ireland: home rule, nationalism, and partition, 1912-1922. Madison: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press.

Dür, Andreas, and Gemma Mateo. 2008. “The Irish EU Presidency and the Constitutional Treaty: Neutrality, Skills and Effective Mediation”. Irish Political Studies. 23 (1): 59-76.

Fahey, Tony, Bernadette C. Hayes, and R. Sinnott. 2006. Conflict and consensus a study of values and attitudes in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland. Leiden: Brill.

Gallagher, Michael, and Michael Marsh. 2011. How Ireland voted 2011 the full story of Ireland’s earthquake election. [Basingstoke]: Palgrave Macmillan.

Hames, Joanne Banker, and Yvonne Ekern. 2010. Introduction to law. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.

Hazell, Robert, and Richard Rawlings. 2005. Devolution, law making, and the constitution. Exeter, UK: Imprint Academic.

Hunt, Brian, and Francis Alan Roscoe Bennion. 2007. The Irish Statute Book: a guide to Irish legislation. Dublin: First Law Ltd.

Kelly, James. 2007. Poynings’ Law and the making of law in Ireland, 1660-1800. Portland, OR: Four Courts Press in association with the Irish Legal History Society.

König, Thomas, and Simon Hug. 2006. Policy-making processes and the European Constitution: a comparative study of member states and accession countries. London: Routledge.

Low, Peter W., John Calvin Jeffries, and Curtis A. Bradley. 2011. Federal courts and the law of federal-state relations. New York, NY: Thomson Reuters/Foundation Press.

Pfander, James E. 2011. Principles of federal jurisdiction. St. Paul, Minn: Thomson West.

Siegan, Bernard H. 2006. Economic liberties and the constitution. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers.

Strøm, Kaare, Torbjörn Bergman, and Wolfgang C. Müller. 2003. Delegation and accountability in parliamentary democracies. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Sulmasy, Glenn M. 2009. The National Security court system: a natural evolution of justice in an age of terror. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Swift, Roger, and Christine Kinealy. 2006. Politics and power in Victorian Ireland. Dublin: Four Courts Press.

Wright, Charles Alan, and Mary Kay Kane. 2011. Law of federal courts.

International Law and International Organizations

Introduction

Originally, states were the only entities capable of gaining recognition as members of the international community. Based on their original position, states were the only entities eligible as subjects for international law. The chief tenet presiding over this State community was the sovereignty each State possesses. Such sovereignty allowed them to contribute to a legal structure based on a restricted amount of regulations that were indispensable to ascertain peaceful relations among States. Therefore, the cooperation of States to create this law translated into the creation of laws of co-existence[1]. Nonetheless, the international community has experienced significant challenges due to the increasing interaction amid States. This interaction involved the creation of international organizations via the cooperation of States. The main purpose for the inception of international organizations constituted the achievement of particular goals that the States could not achieve. Furthermore, the institutionalization of international law has occurred through these international organizations.

Nevertheless, the main subject of contention arising from this case comprises the level of power international organizations possess. After the creation of international organizations, States rarely possess influence over the decisions international organizations make. This is because international law provides for the International Legal Personality of international organizations. A respective entity having the capability of owning international privileges and obligations and the ability to sustain its rights by offering international claims possesses international legal personality[2]. Therefore, by possessing legal personality, international organizations have independent and autonomous powers relative to their member States. Furthermore, international organizations are responsible for the restructuring of international law in the present international legal context. International organizations possess dynamic degrees of authority that vary from standardization of political interaction between States to administrative coordination. Thus, their power over international law is evident where these entities possess the legal influence to encroach on the States’ sovereignty.

Overview of International Organizations

The terminology, international organizations, constitutes a broad range of entities. In a wide scope, international organizations also encompass Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and Multinational Companies (MNCs). These entities usually possess their basis within their State’s local legal structure[3]. However, the scope of international organizations places emphasis on Intergovernmental Organizations. The membership of these organizations is essentially a mandate of the States. International organizations undergo establishment via States. Usually, States educe international agreements that focus on establishing the creation of these entities[4]. These international agreements allow for the conferment of powers that the international organizations should possess. Therefore, they act as a reference point in any case the organizations breach their powers and limitations within the contract. International organizations possess restricted degree of international personality, specifically with reference to member States. They are able to enter in international agreements and in turn, enable their delegates to possess certain rights and immunities.

Various estimates exist concerning the precise number of international organizations. This is due to the creation of international organizations rapidly in order to perform vested obligations and law-making duties within the global society. Nonetheless, it is still possible to assert the magnitude of the existence of international organizations in relation to their states. Accordingly, the ratio of international organizations to member States is actually in excess of three to one[5]. Furthermore, these entities vary from universal organizations, which comprise organizations such as the United Nations, to regional organizations, which possess convoluted structures and extensive powers. An example of this is the European Community. Additionally, international organizations also constitute small entities such as the Nordic Council. Based on the extensive range of international organizations, it is indeed apparent that landscape of international law has changed radically from the epoch of the State as the main subjects.

International organizations assume a very significant role within the contemporary international community. They harmonize cooperation in various fields such as environmental protection and conservation, human rights, and humanitarian assistance. Therefore, without the intervention of such bodies, it would be greatly difficult to solve most of the challenges experienced in this present era. Even though it is still achievable for States to execute cooperation regardless of the institutionalization of these entities, the permanent bodies elevate the cooperation to a greater level[6]. In relation to the extensive range of international organs, other organizations also play a fundamental role in the international community. These entities comprise the technical organizations. Examples of these bodies comprise the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT), the International Maritime Organization and the International Postal Union. Additionally, other organizations such as the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and the International Monetary Fund have assisted in lessening the economic fissure between member nations.

Significant contributions arising from international organizations also comprise the codification of certain areas within international law. Most of the areas that these organs focus on are due to the rapid dynamics of the global environment. Some of the organizations that have contributed to the codifications of these areas include the United Nations on a global scale and the Council of Europe regionally. These organizations are responsible for the creation of numerous treaties governing various aspects. In relation to the United Nations, the most viable feature is the institution of the International Law Commission (ILC). Some of the significant illustration of treaties with respect to the UN comprises the Vienna Convention of 1969 and the Law of the Sea Convention[7]. In terms of the Council of Europe, significant treaties include the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms.

International Organizations and Law-Making

It is undisputed that international organizations have the capability to execute decisions that bind their member States and to exercise sovereign authority as well. This is obvious in organizations such as the United Nations (UN), the World Health Organization (WHO), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the Universal Postal Union (UPU), the European Community (EC), North-Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), the Organization of American States (OAS), the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO)[8]. Based on this assertion, it is apparent that international organizations are rapidly becoming vital significant lawmakers. This is evident based on the functions of the United Nations or other supranational entities such as the European Union (EU) and the World Trade Organization (WTO). Moreover, international organizations offer an appealing institutional model for the current account of the authority of international law.

International organizations bear a resemblance to national legislative institutions where individuals categorize themselves as formal legislators and comprise disparate powers that intervene in the procedure. Nonetheless, international organizations have become autonomous organs of lawmaking authority based on their independence from the States responsible for creating them. The reason for their lawmaking influence arises from certain factors or sources. One of the factors involves the legality of the legal-logical power they exemplify. The second source of their authority involves their considerable control over information and technical proficiency[9]. By embodying such aspects in the international community, international organizations near absolute power in the creation of legislations based on the influence of the States. Furthermore, the accessibility of such sources which arises primarily from the global influence of the States enables international organizations to act in a manner that exemplifies the interests of the States rather than the interests of the organizations themselves.

Nonetheless, international organizations are rapidly shifting to novel forms of lawmaking without the influence of the States. By undergoing conception based on States’ various needs, it has come to realization that States have accorded significant authority to these international organs. This is because member States created numerous and different legislations for international organizations in order for these entities to venture into areas restricted from the member States. However, the near absolute lawmaking authority of international organizations was not the case at one point. Traditionally, certain propositions were significant in order to determine the lawmaking authority international organizations could possess. Foremost, States provided organizations with law-making authority with reference to the constituent treaty. Secondly, international organizations only possessed lawmaking powers accorded to them by the States’ constituent treaties. Lastly, the law-making authority that international organizations possess is limited to internal affairs[10].

These propositions would accomplish the utilization of predictable mechanisms by international organizations during the creation of law. Furthermore, the propositions would necessitate the use of law-making mechanisms in a manner that is consistent with the unique aims and objectives of the member States[11]. However, based on current developments within the international community, it is apparent that such conventional propositions are inapplicable in dictating lawmaking powers for international organizations. Moreover, essential mechanisms, which establish international organizations, are subject to interpretation by the entities and parties responsible for their application. It is, therefore, probable that the provisions implicated in the constituent treaty pertaining to the organizations’ lawmaking authority undergo interpretation in a different manner separate from the original meaning explicated by the drafting States[12]. Therefore, in accordance to this assertion, it is obvious that international organizations, via the process of interpretation, possess the capability of augmenting their lawmaking powers with reference to the Interpretation Clause in the 1969 Vienna Convention.

The Power of International Organizations in Lawmaking

Indeed, international organizations in the present epoch possess significant lawmaking powers in the international community. Such authority presents them as primary lawmakers within the international system. Nonetheless, such power by international organizations originates purely from the interests of the States. In accordance to the Frankenstein Problem, states possess the capability to create international organizations and allocate considerable powers to them in terms of design features selected by the nations. However, in order to States to grant more authority to these organizations, they need to sacrifice their power as well[13]. Therefore, if States need these entities to commit to certain interests significantly, it is also necessary for them to surrender much of their sovereignty to these international organizations. However, this issue is a consequence arising from the materialization of international organizations in this present epoch. From this point onwards, it is important to determine the ways in which international organizations gain recognition as primary lawmakers in the present global system.

One of the ways in which international organizations act as primary lawmakers is through Classification and Creation of Classes of Action and Actors[14]. This aspect mainly involves the interpretation of certain meanings in international law. Through classification, international organizations embody a bureaucratic perspective. This means that international organizations exercise their lawmaking powers by instituting rules and regulations within their respective domains in the international community. Based on this aspect, international organizations, through their rules and regulations, categorize knowledge and information. They are able to do this through the implemented rules and regulations. Furthermore, it is impossible to object such rules based on the adoption of a bureaucratic system. A bureaucratic system focuses on rationalization through impersonality and legislation. Therefore, international organizations as primary lawmakers execute power by rationalizing the international community into adhering to certain practices in areas such as monetary allocation, trade and commerce based on affixed rules and regulations[15].

In terms of the creation of classes, international organizations exercise lawmaking authority by interpreting legal meanings specified in treaties and conventions to their classified and rationalised knowledge. This is present in the changing delineation of certain terminology. For instance, the dynamic characterization of ‘refugee’ symbolizes a category that is complicated and requires distinction from other classes of individuals who live ‘temporarily’ or ‘unwillingly’ outside their native countries, exiles, persons seeking political asylum, guest and expatriate workers, displaced individuals and the diaspora communities[16]. Additionally, the decorum ensuing from the definition of ‘refugee’ is common especially in the confines within and around the United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR). The legal and functional delineation of the class stoutly influences the judgments concerning the classification of a person as a refugee[17]. The judgment also possesses a considerable influence on the circumstances of life of massive numbers of individuals globally. Thus, based on this illustration, international organizations have legal authority in determining the power of affected actors based on their decisions.

International organizations also act as primary lawmakers by fixing meanings. They exercise lawmaking authority by virtue of their capability to fix meanings[18]. This is relative to classification. Through identification of or labelling the social milieu, international organizations verify the parameters and borders of tolerable action. Therefore, in establishing borders of tolerable action, international organizations construct laws that apply to such context regardless of their rigidity or impersonality. Accordingly, actors exude predisposition towards goals and objects based on the connotation they create for them. Therefore, having the capability to invest circumstances with a specific meaning comprises a significant power source for international organizations. Furthermore, regardless of the assertion that international organizations do not act solely, the extensive nature of their resources contribute absolutely to achieve this end. On a different note, one circumstance that comprises a fixed meaning is the concept of development in the international community.

The institutionalization of the notion of development after the Second World War created a significant international mechanism that spread globally through development discourses. Consequently, the conclusion of the Cold War saw international organizations such as the United Nations endorse a re-evaluation of the delineation of security. International organizations lead this debate based on their argument that security also pertains to individuals as much as states[19]. Additionally, international organizations also argue that threats against security might be environmental, military, political or economic. By advocating for optional characterizations of security, international organizations are endorsing a disparate collection of actors and legalizing an alternative collection of practices. Based on this, international organizations have generated laws that allow them to exercise their interpretation of security. An example of this involves the definition and creation of laws for terrorism. Even though terrorism lacks a general definition, the United Nations defines it as criminal acts aimed or computed to invoke a condition of terror within the public[20].

By defining and fixing meanings within the international community, international organizations gain considerable justification in legitimizing their interventions in the international as well as local affairs of sovereign States. This situation is common especially in Third World countries. International organizations construct policies that allow them to arrest or detain an individual accused of crimes such as those against humanity overseas instead of the State. This action by international organizations gains knowledge as ‘international regulation’. Accordingly, through widening the lawmaking authority of international organs concerning internal matters, internal regulations directed by these entities are subject to acquisition of normative overrun impacts, which go beyond the organization’s internal area[21]. An illustration of an entity increasingly active in developing international regulation especially in terrorism-related areas and impunity is the United Nations Security Council (UNSC). The regulations issued by the UNSC directly focus on the citizen instead of the member State. Other organs such as the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda and Yugoslavia (ICTR and ICTY) also affect lawmaking in other states by issuing sanctions directed at persons rather than member States[22].

The spread of established regulations and norms through policies is also another manner in which international organizations act as lawmakers. International organizations express eagerness in transmitting the profits of their proficiency[23]. Usually, these organs function as conveyor belts for the spread of ideal institutions within the international community. Since international organizations possess considerable legal-logical authority, it is possible for them to exert policies that rationalize the international community. This further highlights a dimension of formal rationality, which involves control. Therefore, by acting as propellers of global norms and values, international organizations exercise their authority by influencing States within the international community to adopt Western policies, legislations and practices regardless of their sovereignty[24]. This action is usually common in Third World nations. For instance, international bodies such as the European Union and the United Nations involve themselves in training and developing police training in non-Western countries based on the notion that Western practices in policing are better situated for the process of democratization[25].

Conclusion

In conclusion, international organizations embody the primary lawmakers in the present international system. This is due to the unique resources and power that they possess from their member States. Accordingly, sources such as legal personality, legal-logical authority and control over information and technical proficiency arise from the States responsible for their creation. The rapid increase of a variety of international organizations is due to the interests of the States. States usually possess different interests that they are unable to gratify due to the imposed legislations evident within the international community. Therefore, by creating international organizations, States formulate the design features of these organs in accordance to their needs. However, in order for the States to ensure that international organizations possess greater power, they also need to surrender much of their authority to these organs. This issue creates the Frankenstein Problem in which international organizations possess near absolute authority enough to override the sovereignty of member States.

Bibliography

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[1] J. E. Alvarez, “International Organizations: Then and Now”, American Journal of International Law, no.1002, 2006, pp.333.

[2] D. Sarooshi, International Organizations and Their Exercise of Sovereign Powers, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2009, p.36.

[3] I. Hurd, International Organizations: Politics, Law, Practice, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2011, p.77.

[4] M. P. Karns and K. A. Mingst, International Organizations: The Politics and Processes of Global Governance, Boulder, Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2010, p. 150.

[5] J. E. Alvarez, International Organizations as Law-Makers, Oxford, UK, Oxford University Press, 2006, p. 57.

[6] C. F. Amerasinghe, Principles of the Institutional Law of International Organizations, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2007, p.40.

[7] D. Lewis, International and Regional Organisations, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2006, p. 103.

[8] I. Brownlie, Principles of Public International Law, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2003, p. 121.

[9] N. Blokker, Proliferation of International Organizations, Dordrecht, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2001, p. 45.

[10] J. Klabbers, “The Changing Image of International Organizations”, In Coicaud, J., and Heiskanen, V., (eds.), The Legitimacy of International Organizations, 2001, New York, United Nations University Press, p. 221.

[11] J. Klabbers and A. Wallendahl, Research Handbook on the Law of International Organizations, Cheltenham, Edward Elgar, 2011, p. 56.

[12] I. Brownlie, Basic Documents in International Law, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2009, p.101.

[13] A. Guzman, “Doctor Frankenstein’s International Organizations”, Berkeley School of Law, 2012, p. 8-9.

[14] B. K. Woodward, Global Civil Society in International Lawmaking and Global Governance: Theory and Practice, Leiden, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2010, p.46.

[15] A. Roberts and S. Sivakumaran, “Lawmaking by Nonstate Actors: Engaging Armed Groups in the Creation of International Humanitarian Law”, The Yale Journal of International Law, vol.37, no.1, 2012, pp.113.

[16] J. Klabbers, “Law-making and Constitutionalism”, In Klabbers, J., Peters, A., and Ulfstein, G., (eds.), The Constitutionalization of International Law, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2009, p.112.

[17] S. Besson, “The Authority of International Law-Lifting the State Veil”, Sydney Law Review, vol. 31, no.343, 2009, p.354.

[18] S. Besson and J. Tasioulas, The Philosophy of International Law, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2010, pp.76-79.

[19] J. d’Aspremont, “The multifaceted concept of the autonomy of international organizations and international legal discourse”, In Collins, R., and White, N. D. (ed.), International Organizations and the Idea of Autonomy: Institutional Independence in the International Legal Order, New York, Routledge, 2011, pp.63-67.

[20] H. W. Kushner, Encyclopaedia of Terrorism, Thousand Oaks, Sage Publications, 2011, p.34.

[21] J. E. Alvarez, “Constitutional Interpretation in International Organizations”, In Coicaud, J., and Heiskanen, V., (eds.), The Legitimacy of International Organizations, 2001, New York, United Nations University Press, p.117.

[22] P. M. Scharf, The Law of International Organizations, Durham, Carolina Academic Press, 2007, p.99.

[23] C. Archer, International Organizations, New York, Routledge, 2001, pp. 23-34.

[24] J. G. Ku, “The Delegation of Federal Power to International Organizations: New Problems with Old Solutions”, Minnesota Law Review, vol.85, no.71, 2000, p.72.

[25] A. Stumer, “Liability of Member States for Acts of International Organizations: Reconsidering the Policy Objections”, Harvard International Law Journal, vol.48, no.2, 2007, p.554.

Human Resource Management

Protecting the health, safety, and wellness of employees is a natural extension practiced by many organizations as they seek to create a great workplace (Granger, 2010). This analysis presents different techniques adopted by my organization to maintain the health, safety, and wellness of all employees.

Firstly, my organization is aware of its responsibility of ensuring that all employees are provided with a safe working environment to maintain good health amongst all the employees, and to help increase their level of productivity. The organization has created appropriate measures that prevent or reduce work-related illnesses and injuries. For example, the wellness program established by my organization helps to increase employee awareness on issues that relate to health and encourages them to exercise a healthy lifestyle. The wellness program has had positive impact to the organization because a good number of hazards within specific work environments have been pushed to manageable levels.

Secondly, my organization promotes health and awareness by providing employees with education material, health advice, and engaging them in health-awareness activities. Employees can also choose to access the health benefit programs that the organization provides as a way of promoting healthy lifestyles amongst them. The organization has established proper mechanisms for ensuring that all employees are able to enjoy the global benefit policy that applies to different areas such as medical, disability, vision, and life insurance. To increase employee participation in health, safety and wellness programs, my organization subjects all employees to a compulsory and self-guided education in health.

The organization also emphasizes on the significance of safety, health, and wellness to all employees immediately after joining the organization. In addition, the organization extends an extensive training on health, safety, and wellness programs that focus on the specific jobs performed by the employees. For example, the employee orientation offered by my organization provides them with an overview of all the various policies established by the organization as it seeks to prevent and respond to different types of injuries at the workplace. After completing the orientation program, the organization publishes an online health advisory that helps new employees to have a solid understanding of the common forms of injuries and the best way to overcome them. As McMurray & Clendon (2011) explains, conducting frequent inspections helps an organization to identify potential hazards as well as the most appropriate measures for preventing such hazards. In my organization, training on how to prevent these hazards is provided in different languages to help meet the varying needs of the organization’s diverse global workforce. All workers are also encouraged to engage in self-audits to establish their capacity to manage safety and health risks.

It is also worthy to mention that my organization conducts frequent employee surveys to determine the effectiveness of its health, safety, and wellness program. For example, in 2010, the organization surveyed 80% of its employees and established that many of them appreciated the manner in which the organization carried out the health and wellness programs. In terms of job and workplace safety, seventy percent of these employees indicated that the safety program meets and exceeds their expectations.

Conclusively, it is evident that my organization has scored highly in terms of meeting the health, safety, and wellness of all its employees. The organization does not need to undertake any further improvements since the current programs have the capacity to create a great workplace.

References

Granger, L. (2010). Best practices in occupational health, safety, workers compensation and claims management for employers: Assisting employers in navigating “the road to zero”. Boca Raton, Fla: Universal-Publishers.

McMurray, A., & Clendon, J. (2011). Community health and wellness: Primary health care in practice. Chatswood, N.S.W: Elsevier Australia.

SUSTAINABILITY REPORTING BY COMPANIES AND BUSINESS CONDUCT

Reporting is one thing that organizations cannot operate without doing. The reporting is always required since it gives the required information to the stakeholders. Reporting comes in many categories, and sustainability reporting is one of them. Sustainability reporting is a report prepared by companies where details which touch on environmental, economic, social and governance status are given (White 2009, p.1). This report is one of the non-financial ones a company is supposed to give. It plays other roles such as wooing investors among others.

According to White (2009, p.1), Sustainability reporting has more than just giving gathers information. It holds more in terms of fostering a company’s operations. It plays a major role in ensuring that the interests of all the stakeholders are met. This reporting is supposed to be done in consideration of certain important factors. One of these important factors is openness.

In an organization, handling of sustainability issues should be done with the utmost transparency ever (Olowokudejo, Aduloju, & Oke, 2011). This is to ensure that the real issues are addressed properly. The reporting should not mislead the interested partied in any way. This will be against the required standards of sustainability reporting. A company should always put in a place a team of trust people who are able to do competent work in terms of their reporting.

The other actor which should be considered is that the information given in the reports should be easy to trace. This means that all the information given in the reports should never be hard to verify. This factor helps in ensuring that only the details which reflects the real issues in an organization is put in the reports. This helps in ensuring that the stakeholders have the truth regarding the state of affairs in a company. The information given in the sustainability report should be a reflection of what the company records show. This should also be a reflection of the environment and policies in an organization.

The other important thing which should be considered in sustainability reports is compliance. There are several bodies which a company must comply to its regulations. Therefore, it is important to ensure that the report given shows true compliance of all regulatory authorities requirements. There are also other reporting standards which should be complied with.

It is believed that companies are able to do well in terms of sustainability if they talk about it. It is believed that documenting a company’s sustainability helps in growing the culture in a company. The reporting should always be done after proper examination and monitoring process of sustainability (Scaltegger, Bennet, & Burrit 2006, p.513). The sustainability reporting should be done with regard to the globally recommended guidelines.

To make the reporting better, there has to be a strong consideration of ethical and moral standards. Ethics refers to the collection of acts and behavioural trends which foster good life for all human beings (Verstraeten 2000, p.43). According to Scaltegger, Bennet, & Burrit (2006, p.513), it is important to ensure that sustainability reporting gives details of the ethical status in a company. This will be able to spread the gospel that it is important for organizations to have policies regarding their ethics. According to Donaldson (1982, p.72) morality refers to the standards of handling right and wrong of a group of people. This should also be reflected in the sustainability reports. Ethics and morality should be reported together since the support each other. For example, ethics is a good measure of moral standards.

The world has become one funny place where contravention of requirements takes place. There are many areas where standards and other requirements are not followed to the letter. Companies are unable to perform environmental protection in their operations. Many companies which have operational processes with emissions have not been able to do the right things. If a company has harmful processes, it is important to take precautions so that the environment is not harmed. One of the precautions that such organizations can take is arresting the emissions. These companies can also recycle whatever is extracted from the processes in an effort to make the environment more habitable which is a good step towards sustainability.

There is another aspect of sustainability regarding ethical and moral practice. Companies should ensure that all operational processes are carried out in ethical and moral correct way (Donaldson 1982, p.72). Many a times, the processes of many companies are done in a way which is not morally and ethically up right. For example, the procurement area is one place where malpractices take place. Bribery takes place in many companies so that tenders and other contracts may be won. This is one of the ways through which ethical and moral standards are not respected. There are also malpractices in recruitment processes in many companies. People hire their own thus contravening the rights of many human beings.

In addition, companies are supposed to have systems which ensure that every occurrence is well captured. These systems may be related to accounting and human resource. This is usually not the case since some companies have systems which are not functioning. Some others do not have proper systems in place. This is usually not the case when the companies are making their reports. They usually report that there are accredited systems in place. This comes out as unacceptable towards development of sustainability in the company as well as in the world.

The sustainability reports are also supposed to report on the internal relations of employees. The way employees relate should be reported. The general welfare of companies’ work force should be well detailed. Basically there should be satisfaction and cohesion among the employees of a company. The communication levels should be well set for a company to achieve sustainability. It occurs that the situations in companies regarding employees are not the best. This is usually not reported by the companies in their sustainability reports.

The financial status of a company is usually its backbone. It is usually the focal point of the stakeholders in the company since it highlights the state of their investments (Valenti, Luce & Mayfield 2011). Generally, companies should have financial reports which give the true and fair view of affairs in the company. In most companies, the books of accounts are usually done in ways which do not reflect the state of affairs financial wise. The entries are usually tempered with to reflect what the company leadership wants. With this, the reports which are given are not showing the real issues in the company.

Governance of a company is also a very important factor towards sustainability. The governance of a company refers to the state of operation and control. Corporate governance is not the same as management. According to Razaee (2008, p.87), the governance of the company involves the board, some managers, shareholders and some other stakeholders. The governance of a company should always be in a way which puts the interests of the stakeholders in mind. It should be procedural and considerate enough of the impact their decisions would have on the whole world (Razaee 2008, p.87). Many companies have very many governance problems. The board members of some companies have questionable characters. Some of them try to influence processes in the companies they govern. Others try to misappropriate funds of the organizations they lead. Despite the presence of these bad acts, the sustainability reports of the companies reflect otherwise. The sustainability reports are usually put in a way which gives the governance of these companies applause (Christofi, Christofi & Sisaye 2012).

Safety in a work place is another issue pertinent to sustainability. The places of work should always be safe for all. The safety should not be for the employees but everybody. Safety precautions should be put in place to ensure that the internal as well as external surroundings in a company are safe. This should include getting health and safety certification from the concerned bodies. It has emerged that many companies have poor environments with regard to safety. The employees are not given protective gear while at work. Some companies have offices which do not have proper ventilation. There is also the fact that some companies do not put in place proper amenities such as lighting and drinking water. These negative issues are usually not reflected in the sustainability reports which organizations produce annually.

The economic dream is that all companies become socially one. There is the factor of corporate social responsibility for all companies. Companies are supposed to be involved in many social activities towards creating positive impacts. Furthermore, they should be able to relate well with the other companies. This is usually not the case in most companies. This is because they do not engage in any activities aimed at improving the living standards in the society. Many companies do not relate well with their counterparts. These negative issues are usually not reflected in the sustainability reports. The reports are put in a way which shows good social standing of the company.

Preparation of sustainability requires that targets for the company get well detailed. This should be done in a way which reflects possibility (Brink 2011, p.17). It is sad to see how many companies give impossible targets in their sustainability reports. Basically, the targets are aimed at showing the stakeholders what to expect within the next financial year. If the targets are not achievable under any circumstance, the stakeholders are cheated and the road towards full sustainability is misled.

Therefore, it is evident that sustainability reporting by companies is merely an attempt to green wash their business conduct. This is because companies are usually involved in very many immoral and unethical actions. If these actions were to come open to the public domain, there would be very dire consequences for the company and some staff members.

Due to the effects of misleading information in the sustainability reports, stakeholders are not able to put the right efforts so that they may improve their companies (Webber, Apostolou & Hassel 2004). This is because they always feel that the companies are in the right direction and therefore no need of intervention. This is usually a very bad thing for company leaders to do since it derails all the efforts which would have been put to straighten the economic, governance, social, and environmental of affairs.

Sustainability is something which should not be compromised on. This is because it is a good way of making the world habitable. It is also a good thing towards making lives better. The bodies which regulate companies should come up with procedures which ensure adherence to all the stands put in place (Spitzeck 2009). All the loopholes should be sealed through proper sustainability management in companies. Each country should come up with laws which ensure that everyone contributes to sustainability. The laws should be put in a way which requires that an audit of the reported issues be carried out (Peters & Haslett 2011). With eminent thorough audit, companies will be afraid of misrepresenting facts. This will ensure that companies make records which are a true reflection of what is going on in the company. The people with interest in developing strong sustainability levels should be able to come up with watch dog organizations. There should also be training availed to companies regarding the best business conduct practices. Employees of companies should also come out and defend proper practices. They should act as whistle blowers whenever they witness improper ways of doing things in their work. This will ensure that irresponsible sustainability reporting is done away with forever.

References

Brink, A 2011, Corporate Governance and Business Ethics, Springer.

Christofi,A, Christofi, P & Sisaye, S 2012, Corporate sustainability: historical development and reporting practices,Vol.35,no.2

Donaldson, T 1982, Corporations and Morality, Prentice-Hall.

Peters, C& Haslett, SK, 2011, Education for sustainable development and global citizenship: An evaluation of the validity of the STAUNCH auditing tool,International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, Vol.12,no.2.

Olowokudejo, F, Aduloju, SA & Oke,SA 2011, Corporate social responsibility and organizational effectiveness of insurance companies in Nigeria, Vol 12, no.3

Razaee , Z 2008, Corporate Governance and Ethics,John Wiley & Sons.

Scaltegger,S, Bennet, M & Burrit, R 2006,Sustainability Accounting and Reporting, Springer.

Spitzeck, H 2009, The development of governance structures for corporate responsibility, Vol.9, no.4

Valenti, MA,Luce, R & Mayfield, C 2011,The effects of firm performance on corporate governance,Vol.34, no.3.
Verstraeten, J 2000, Business Ethics: Broadening the Perspectives, Peeters Publishers.

Webber, SA, Apostolou,B & Hassel,JM 2004, management fraud risk factors: an examination of the self-insight of and consensus among forensic experts, Vol 7.

White, GB 2009, Sustainability Reporting: Managing for Wealth and Corporate Health, Business Expert Press.

US GAAP AND IFRS – Accounting

US GAAP AND IFRS – Accounting

Explain the current state of International Accounting Standards and the road map towards convergence. Summarize the key differences between U.S. GAAP and IFRSs. Identify the pros and cons of using each standard. Finally, with the core values of excellence and integrity in mind, determine the best option for the United States (keep our existing standards, converge with IFRSs, or adopt IFRSs).

Introduction

International Financial Reporting Standards are basically designed as a common financial global language for business operations so that a firm accounts are interpreted and compared uniformly all over the world. They are as a result of growing and expanding international shareholding in businesses and other related trading activities worldwide. IFRS is progressively and gradually replacing different national financial or accounting standards globally. All IFRS converge at developing acceptable, comparable, relevant and reliable financial standards universally.

International Financial Reporting Standards began initially as an attempt to converge accounting across the EU but the approach of the harmonization concept became attractive to other nations worldwide. It was originally known as IAS i.e. International Accounting Standards which began and operated between the years 1973 to the year 2001 before IFRS was developed. GAAP is an acronym for generally accepted accounting principles. It’s made up of a series of commonly used accounting rules and practices for financial reporting. These specifications include the accounting terms definitions and the concepts, principles as well as the general accounting rules. The objective of GAAP is to ensure that there is a standard in all companies concerning financial reporting which should be transparent and consistent from one company to the other. (Economist.com, 2008)

The main difference between the GAAP accounting concepts mostly adopted in the USA and the IFRS is essentially the concepts and treatment of capital and its maintenance as authorized or directed by the IFRS. The US GAAP authorizes only two capitals and its maintenance concept mostly during either low inflation or deflation i.e. financial capital maintenance as written in nominal monetary currency or units. (Traditional or Historical Cost Accounting) Part 45 to 48 of the FASB No. 5. The US GAAP doesn’t recognize or recommend the third concept or theory of financial capital and the capital maintenance basically during low inflation and during deflation i.e. financial capital maintenance as written in units of constant or steady purchasing power as directed or authorized by the IFRS in part 104 section (a) in the years 1989.

The major advantage the US stands to gain by converging to IFRS is the comparability hence greater and wider market liquidity and subsequent lower or reduced cost of capital. The Multinational corporations from the US stand to save a lot of cost because they won’t have to maintain several sets of accounting records as IFRS is generally universally accepted. Changing to IFRS would certainly allow different people to compare similar financial statements written on the same standards and concepts. (Hail, Luzi, Leuz, Christian, Wysocki and Peter, 2009)

The other primary difference between IFRS and US GAAP is that the IFRS HAS wider and less specific concepts and guidance applications which gives more room for interpretation. Accountants have the opportunity to incorporate their value judgment in making some decisions which can interfere with the global aim of achieving standard concepts. The other areas where there are glaring disparities are the fair values, financial liabilities, revenue recognition and consolidation together with equity.

Although conversion seems favorable there are more complexities that should not be overlooked. The major goal of global conversion is to create global standards to ease comparability. IFRS has comparability issues which are more serious than the US GAAP i.e. US GAAP has already proved that it’s more specific and its quality is higher. I would definitely recommend the US to keep its GAAP standards.

References

Hail, Luzi, Leuz, Christian and Wysocki, Peter D., (2009). Global Accounting

Convergence and the Potential Adoption of IFRS by the United States: An Analysis of

Economic and Policy Factors Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1357331

Economist.com, “Closing the GAAP: America embraces international accounting

standards.”Economist.com. 28 Aug 2008. Economist.com, Web. 17 July 2009.

<http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12010009>.

Brink, A 2011, Corporate Governance and Business Ethics, Springer.

Donaldson, T 1982, Corporations and Morality, Prentice-Hall.

Peters, C& Haslett, SK, 2011, Education for sustainable development and global citizenship: An evaluation of the validity of the STAUNCH auditing tool,International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, Vol.12,no.2.

Razaee , Z 2008, Corporate Governance and Ethics,John Wiley & Sons.

Scaltegger,S, Bennet, M & Burrit, R 2006,Sustainability Accounting and Reporting, Springer.

Spitzeck, H 2009, The development of governance structures for corporate responsibility, Vol.9, no.4

Valenti, MA,Luce, R & Mayfield, C 2011,The effects of firm performance on corporate governance,Vol.34, no.3. Verstraeten, J 2000, Business Ethics: Broadening the Perspectives, Peeters Publishers.

Webber, SA, Apostolou,B & Hassel,JM 2004, management fraud risk factors: an examination of the self-insight of and consensus among forensic experts, Vol 7.

Valenti, MA,Luce, R & Mayfield, C 2011,The effects of firm performance on corporate governance,Vol.34, no.3.
Verstraeten, J 2000, Business Ethics: Broadening the Perspectives, Peeters Publishers.