Author: chris

Bottom of the Pyramid (BOP) Strategy

Introduction

Bottom of the Pyramid (BOP) is a socio-economic strategy that brings in the concept of grouping the vast majority of the world’s population, who are in excess of four billion, and constitute the poorest individuals and represent the unserved and invisible market segment which have been blocked by challenging barriers from utilizing their full potential for the benefit of those around them including their families, the society, and themselves (Chikweche, 2013). According to world rating, anyone who falls within the category of the BOP is estimated to live on less than $2.50 per day  and do not have the liberty to enjoy the modernity and revolution of the current globalized and civilized services (London, 2008). These include consumption of the vast choices that the current globalized market offers, as well as the modern forms of organized financial offers. The wildest mistake that many businesses make is to overlook the overarching potential of this BOP, as broad estimates posit that this segment of the market has a purchasing power parity of well over $5 trillion as consumers (London, 2008). It is the thesis of this paper that in the face of globalization and market liberalization, transnational businesses have a rich base of consumers in the BOP segment, which when properly utilized through effective organizational management has the potential to bring huge economic benefits.

The Link between BOP and Globalized Business Management

The high level of poverty across the globe is hugely alarming, as it is recorded that approximately four billion people are living in abject poverty, surviving on less than $2.50 per day. Most of these people reside in developing countries, and many at times they have been vaguely dismissed as non-important to the economic status of the global climate (Sungbum, Lee, & Park, 2013). With the introduction of free trade and the setting in of globalization spurred by technological advancement, the world has been turned into a global village. Currently, the most vibrant way organizations do business is through instituting multi-national corporations that across different cultures and territories. From the time of C.K. Prahalad, it has been realized that targeting consumers at the lowest base of the pyramid actually has far-reaching potential for revitalizing the economy. Thus, Prahalad (2004), states that for businesses to gain from the modern status of globalized market, they must revolutionize their business strategies to encompass the both sides of the pyramid. This analogy presents a very practical and lucid way of fighting poverty in a profitable manner.

Many excellent opportunities have been availed through globalization for multi-nationals to invade and make the best out of developing countries. It is always a requirement that when a multi-national corporation is setting up a business in a certain country, then most of the taskforce would be derived from the hosting country. The employment of local people in these businesses is a business strategy that wise corporations have been using as a tool to fight poverty, and in return win the loyalty of the locals to their products (Wood, Pitta, & Franzak, 2008). Financial opportunities that empower the poor such as the micro-credit program invented by Mohammad Yunus is one of the most innovative ways through which the BOP have benefited from a globalized financial market (Chikweche & Fletcher, 2012). The main question that organizations have to ask themselves is how to effectively manage their businesses so that the BOP is adequately focused and targeted.

Advantages of BOP Strategy to Organizations

In the current market which is characterized by stiff competition, many companies are on the look-out for new ways to establish a sustainable competitive advantage. Multinational corporations have thus employed absolute strategies to make use of the BOP. As opposed to earlier notions, the BOP presents a vibrant base for economic growth and innovation, provided that companies have the ability to mold their operations through effective global management to suit the demands of the poor (Dolan, 2012). In order to actualize this dream, organizations have to understand the connection between globalization and business as discussed above, and employ strategies that would completely bring a change to the traditional models of business. This brings in the concepts of foundation of management and organizations; constraints and challenges for the global manager; and essentials of global management.

The benefits that organizations that adopt this strategy stand to gain are not limited. According to Prahalad (2004), if companies employ the 4As (awareness, access, affordability, and availability), then they could as well attain the sustainable competitive advantage that is so desirable in any economic setting. He posits that if organizations decide to serve consumers in a manner that meets the 4As, then there are tremendous advantages that await them. For instance, employing the BOP strategy involves understanding the niche of the market, and tailoring products that would best meet their standards. Since the BOP consists of the vast majority of consumers, an organization would have a wide coverage with a faster return on investments. In any case, the poor people of today are the ones who constitute the middle class of tomorrow (Sungbum, Lee, & Park, 2013).  Many companies that have used this strategy have revitalized economically, and have come to assume a global popularity that works well with their economies of scale. For instance, LG stands out as a prime guru in the utilization of the BOP strategy. It is the world’s leading supplier of televisions and other electronics. The organization focused on Prahalad’s 4As, and in Brazil for instance, it centered majorly on the last two economic classes D & E, and produced affordable, quality, available, and accessible products. It also devised manageable payment plans that could allow consumers purchase goods on installments. It further mingled with the locals in a more personal manner, putting up manufacturing plants in remote areas, promoting local activities, and employing natives to work in its plants (London, 2008). Bringing goods and services close to the poor has not only helped to alleviate poverty, but has also created a sustainable business brand for LG.

In addition, following the BOP approach enhances an organization’s innovativeness and effectiveness. This is partially because it is not a simple thing to produce goods that sell at a low price, but still bring profits and sustainability. In another aspect, the needs of the BOP are diverse, dissimilar, and rapidly changing. In a world driven by fashion and new designs, technological innovations are fast-paced, and goods and services quickly become obsolete. C. K Prahalad coined the term Innovation Sandbox to refer to the model of applying business strategies along with the 4As as well as target costing in order to meet the demands of affordability (Prahalad, 2004). This is the main component of the BOP market segment, and most consumers judge the quality of goods based on this parameter. An organization that focuses on collective affordability stands a chance to become more innovative, creative, and technologically astute. This is primarily because through the adoption of current technologies of production, organizations are able to minimize losses, maximize results, and reduce costs of production (Sungbum, Lee, & Park, 2013). The result of this scenario is that multinational corporations would be able to expand rapidly in an environment that is driven by great market demand and innovation.

Generally, the assumption that the poor have no money is misleading and unfounded. Well, while the analysis of an individual member of the bottom pyramid cannot give encouraging data for investors, the most important consideration that should be made is the cumulative purchasing power of this market segment (Dolan, 2012). While statistical data has repeatedly shown that the 4 billion people have a vast potential for business ventures, the area remains largely untapped. Once these misconceptions are eliminated, businesses stand a chance to invest in a highly liquid market, since prosperity is always meant for the poor. Individuals who are still rated low on the hierarchy of needs according Maslow have the inherent motivation to ascend up the ladder, so as to achieve self-actualization (Sungbum, Lee, & Park, 2013). It is this stimulation that enables them to have a high purchasing power, and offer a rich market for a company’s products. Basically, when corporations invest among the poor and produce goods that address their needs, it helps them build their brand and corporate image, which are both crucial for achieving a competitive advantage (Davidson, 2009).

Another important aspect of the BOP market is its level of reduced costs of production that is brought by supply of cheap labor. In top-line growth, the most crucial element is cost-saving opportunity, which can be exploited by businesses to reap more from less. With the rapid expansion of digital networks that operate in high-speed, many multinationals are relocating labor-intensive company operations such as marketing services, call centers, and back-office processing to areas that are still developing and are populated with the BOP members (Olsen & Boxenbaum, 2009). Apart from cutting on costs, outsourcing labor from BOP market segments is an innovative way of creating job opportunities, which exponentially increases the purchasing power of the locals. As it follows, the BOP markets offer not only reduced costs and capacity for innovation to the MNCs, but also offer a valid opportunity for top-line growth for those that have exhausted their primary targets.

Disadvantages of the BOP Strategy

It is precisely right to mention that in every economic opportunity, there must be beneficiaries and victims. The major determinant in this scenario is the ability of corporations to effectively manage globalized businesses, and adequately address concerns arising within their own organizations (Wood, Pitta, & Franzak, 2008). It therefore follows that having a comprehensive organizational culture dictated by strict customer focus is a necessary prerequisite for an attainable competitive advantage. However, many organizations lack this ability, and many assume that targeting the BOP is economically unsound since it does not bring good returns on investment. This claim is true if an organization does not efficiently identify, target, and address the needs of its market.

Organizations that employ the BOP strategy may fail if the local weaknesses are not adequately addressed. The foundation of an organization requires extensive market study that would serve to give relevant information regarding the needs of the targeted segment, as well the best strategies that would be favorable to the situation (Olsen & Boxenbaum, 2009). When these plans are not put in place, misperceptions such as ‘all goods sold in a BOP market are incredibly cheap, thus there is no room for expansion and innovation’ may start to develop within the minds of global managers (Chikweche, 2013). The reality is that consumers who are members of the bottom pyramid may actually pay higher prices for goods and services than the middle-class do, since their judgment of quality is primarily based on pricing (Wood, Pitta, & Franzak, 2008). This means that real opportunities exist for aggressive businesses in the BOP, but without adequate planning and research, many firms are likely to fail. The level of risks involved in this segment of the global market is what makes it challenging to tap.

Conclusion

From the arguments advanced herein, it suffices to conclude that corporations have more to gain from venturing into BOP markets than they have to lose. Fundamentally, markets at the bottom of the pyramid offer numerous opportunities for growth, innovativeness, cost-reduction, and creation of employment. Since these markets are still in their earliest stages of development, growth can be really rapid. However, there are dangers associated with globalization and targeting of new markets, which present entrepreneurial barriers to most business. Through effective global management, MNCs are able to create an aura of successful businesses that would not only earn them sustainable competitive advantage, but also contribute towards the noble course of poverty alleviation.

List of References

Chikweche, T 2013, ‘Marketing at the bottom of pyramid: market attractiveness and strategic requirements’, Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 31, 7, p. 764.

Chikweche, T 2013, ‘Revisiting the Business Environment at the Bottom of the Pyramid (BOP)—From Theoretical Considerations to Practical Realities’, Journal Of Global Marketing, 26, 5, pp. 239-257.

Chikweche, T, & Fletcher, R 2012, ‘Revisiting the marketing mix at the bottom of pyramid (BOP): from theoretical considerations to practical realities’, Journal Of Consumer Marketing, 29, 7, pp. 507-520.

Davidson, K 2009, ‘Ethical concerns at the bottom of the pyramid: Where CSR meets BOP’, Journal Of International Business Ethics, 2, 1, pp. 22-32.

Dolan, C 2012, ‘The new face of development: The ‘bottom of the pyramid’ entrepreneurs (Respond to this article at )’, Anthropology Today, 28, 4, pp. 3-7.

London, T. 2008. The base-of-the-pyramid perspective: A new approach to poverty alleviation. In G. T. Solomon (Ed.), Academy of Management Best Paper Proceedings.

Olsen, M, & Boxenbaum, E 2009, ‘Bottom-of-the-Pyramid: Organizational barriers to implementation’, California Management Review, 51, 4, pp. 100-125.

Prahalad, C K (2004) Fortune at the bottom of the pyramid: Eradicating poverty through profits. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Sungbum, J, Lee, D, & Park, J 2013, ‘Determining business models in bottom-of-the-pyramid markets’, Industrial Management & Data Systems, 113, 7, p. 1064.

Wood, V, Pitta, D, & Franzak, F 2008, ‘Successful marketing by multinational firms to the bottom of the pyramid: connecting share of heart, global “umbrella brands”, and responsible marketing’, Journal Of Consumer Marketing, 25, 7, pp. 419-429.

  

Organisation Analysis: Organic and Mechanistic Perspectives

Introduction

Bureaucratic organisations are defined by the way they organise their employees using systems of roles rather than the people themselves (Maravelias and Hansson, 2005, p. 4). Normally, employees in such an organisation have different roles that they must play. A set of restrictive rules and guidelines sustain order by defining the roles of the workers. In contrast, the post bureaucratic organisation changed the way that companies looked at these employee roles. While the bureaucratic organisations used employee abilities to give them their roles, the post-bureaucratic organisations gamble on their workers and give them roles based on their potential (Maravelias and Hansson, 2005, p. 4). Using this system, companies have become networks instead of hierarchies involving employees of all levels in important processes such as planning and decision-making. Since its introduction, the post-bureaucratic organisation has created quite a buzz and become the subject of a lot of academic discourse. The post-bureaucratic organization structure is a better option for modern firms because it incorporates all of the employees in key processes and values them more than the older structures.

The analysis in this paper will start with an overview of both bureaucratic and post-bureaucratic organisations. This will then be followed by the section that discusses the post-bureaucratic organisation in the modern world. The first part of this section will outline the organic and mechanistic perspectives. The next part will then dissect the value of the post-bureaucratic organisation within the context of the two perspectives in a bid to prove the main argument of the paper.

Bureaucratic and Post-Bureaucratic Structures

Before the introduction of post-bureaucratic structures, bureaucratic organisation had been the mainstay for most corporations and firms. McKenna, Garcia-Lorenzo and Bridgman (2010, p. 190) argue that for more than a century, bureaucracy had been the dominant type of organisation. However, a number of issues and practices related to it have made companies seek other options. One of the main problems associated with bureaucratic systems is an obsession with rules and guidelines. McKenna, Garcia-Lorenzo and Bridgman (2010, p. 190) claim that this obsession makes workers less enthusiastic causing poor customer service and a resistance to innovation and change, two critical aspects for the future success of a corporation. Bureaucracies were designed for cases that required many standardized operations but changing situations in the world forced a review of the system.

Many scholars and critics produced works that claimed to foresee the fall of bureaucracy and hierarchy within organisation structures. The 1990s saw writers discuss the emergence of a new type of organization structure that bore little reference to the traditional bureaucratic systems, with some even going as far as to describe it using the word utopian (Hodgson, 2004, p. 83). Most people hailed the emergence of these new systems, arguing that they were the way forward for organisational structures. In the post-bureaucratic systems, the entire workforce of the firm bore responsibility for the company’s success. Hodgson (2004, p. 83) traces the emergence of the post-bureaucratic structures to proceedings that took place over the 1990s and 1980s. One of these events was the discovery of corporate culture by popular management in the 1980s. Another relevant proceeding was the promotion of the enterprise culture within the same decade. However, the key factor behind the decline of the bureaucratic organisation structure was the fact that it was full of dysfunctions and inefficiencies (Hodgson, 2004, p. 83).

Bureaucratic and post-bureaucratic structures are distinguished by a number of distinct features that they each have. One key difference between the two relates to the roles that employees have within the firm. In a bureaucratic system, decisions are made by the figures that occupy authoritative positions (Hodgson, 2004, p. 84). The decision makers do not consult junior employees when making these key choices for the firm. Alternatively, post-bureaucratic organisations involve their employees in the decision making process by utilizing institutionalized dialogue (Hodgson, 2004, p. 84).

Bureaucratic organisations are also known for the emphasis that they place on rules and protocols. This makes their operations and structure become quite rigid. In contrast, post-bureaucratic organisations focus more on the goals and missions of the company. This means that the firm is normally willing to overlook a few rules to guarantee success (Hodgson, 2004, p. 84). Lastly, bureaucratic organisations usually prefer to maintain normalcy and avoid making too many changes. Conversely, organisations with a post-bureaucratic structure expect, anticipate and welcome change. For firms with this kind of structure, change and innovation are just some of the factors that enhance growth and success (Hodgson, 2004, p. 84).

Significance of a Post-Bureaucratic Organisation in the Current Environment

Modern firms have changed the way that they perceive their employees and the workplace. In the bureaucratic world, companies did not care about aspects of their employees that did not relate to the workplace. Most companies disregarded issues such as personality traits, personal relationships, hobbies and other aspects that did not involve the workplace (Maravelias and Hansson, 2005, p. 5). However, companies now consider all of these issues and attributes to be relevant to how an employee performs and are beginning to pay attention to them. Maravelias and Hansson (2005, p. 5) argue that modern firms now consider the “whole man”, paying special attention to the potential that the person has of becoming something bigger. Because of these new demands, the post-bureaucratic organisational structure has been seen to suit companies better than its predecessor. Both structures have specific organisational perspectives that fit them and that can be used to analyse them to create an understanding of how they fit modern corporations.

Analysts apply two main perspectives when analysing organisations. The first perspective is the mechanistic perspective, which considers companies to be machines. Proponents of this view claim that machines are supposed to be dependable, effective, easy to control and dedicated to specific tasks (Muller, 2003, p. 36). The same argument can be made of a company. The people at the top of the command chain control the company. Workers each have their own roles and carry out dedicated tasks, like the different parts of a machine. The stable nature of the company matches the predictable demands of the clients. The mechanistic perspective falls within the bureaucratic organisation structures and many companies preferred to use this system before new systems were ushered in during the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries (Morgan, 2007, p. 16).

Analysts also use the organic perspective to scrutinize different organisational structures that corporations use. In the organisation structure, scholars consider corporations to be biological creatures. Through this assumption, they argue that companies bear the same defining traits as animals. This means that they are living, breathing creatures that exist in an environment with which they interact (Van Wyk, n.d.). Additionally, this perspective argues that companies are in direct competition with each other for limited resources meaning that only the strongest ones will survive. For this reason, adaptation and evolution are important aspects of a corporation’s survival, growth and development. Within this view, the environment in which a firm operates is one of the most important forces that the firm deals with. The company needs to focus on surviving within this environment (Van Wyk, n.d.).

One of the best qualities of the post-bureaucratic structure is that it focuses more on skill and talent than on hierarchy and power. Within this system, peer review processes are used to determine the appraisal of employees (Hodgson, 2004, p. 84). The organisation rewards workers who it considers more valuable, hardworking and loyal. Most companies that use organic organization tend to have highly skilled staff, with abilities and skills that the company highly values. This means that it is important for the company to acknowledge the value of the employees through various means. The fact that these companies care more about their workers also makes it likely that their workers will be more loyal to them. This is especially the case if the employees feel that they are satisfied with the work that they are doing for their company along with the returns that they are getting (McKenna, Garcia-Lorenzo and Bridgman, 2010, p. 190).

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory helps to explain the main idea behind companies caring for their employees. According to the theory, the satisfaction of an employee’s lower needs such as the physical and safety needs acts as a motivating factor (Psichogios, 2012). Going with this theory, companies will want to make sure that their workers are satisfied with their living and their working conditions so that they can get the high output levels. From my own working experience, most employers tend to make sure that their workers are paid well and on time as a way of inspiring them to work harder. This fits Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory and it is also the same system that most post-bureaucratic organisations apply.

The decentralized decision-making structure of post-bureaucratic organisations makes it easier for them to operate (Gitman and Daniel, 2009, p. 190). Two key features of this system stand out. Firstly, information relevant to the operation of the company is shared to all members of the company. This means that employees are constantly informed. Secondly, decisions are not made at the top; rather an agreement is normally reached by dialogue between workers and supervisors (Hodgson, 2004, p. 84). This kind of system ensures that the firm is well informed and therefore capable of making the best decision possible. This issue ties in with the organic perspective in some ways. Because the firm shares a lot of information with its employees, internal trust is an issue of grave importance. There is a need to make sure that the needs of the employees are well catered for to deter them from diverging sensitive information about the company (Hodgson, 2004, p. 84).

Law firms are a good example of companies that share a lot of information with their employees. According to Everett-Nollkamper (2004, p. 7), some law firms use a democratic system to make decisions, where all of the attorneys in the company vote on key issues. This system is a good example of a post-bureaucratic organisational structure in practice. Details concerning ongoing cases and issues are usually accessible by most of the firm’s employees and the company places a high level of trust in them not to share the information. Such a system works best for firms that have a small number of employees because the reduced numbers mean that the democratic model cannot become chaotic.

Using the organic perspective to analyse the post-bureaucratic organisation, it can be argued that the most important aspect of this structure is that it pays attention to its environment. The environment is a very important factor that a company needs to consider in its operations (Flora and Flora, 2007, p. 30). For a basic company, the environment refers to a wide range of factors such as the clients, competitors, employees, market and others that must be put into consideration. One of the reasons why the post-bureaucratic organisation works well with the environment is that it is primed for change. The structures high level of adaptability makes it possible for it to change freely and match any changes that happen in the environment (Grey, 2005, p. 95).

The Darwinian theory of survival of the fittest can help explain the relationship between a company and its environment. Much like the species that Darwin described, companies exist in an environment that is very limited. Market, space and capital are all resources that exist in limited supply and that the companies have to compete for. The advantage that post-bureaucratic organisations gain from their structure is that they are primed for change, which is in stark contrast to the bureaucratic organisations that are set up with constancy in mind (Hodgson, 2004, p. 84). The adaptable nature of post-bureaucratic organisations makes it easier for them to make changes to their structure that match the prevailing environment. Changes in areas such as demand and technology can easily be matched. Technology companies are a good example of companies that adapt quickly. They are built around flexibility and speed by having few formalities. This way innovation drives the company forward as the management encourages the employees to break boundaries. The recent Smartphone wars between Samsung and Apple have been a good indicator of this innovation in practice. Through different media on the internet, I have come to learn that the major driving factor behind the success of Samsung and Apple has been the ability to change quickly and adapt to innovations such as new mobile platforms.

Conclusion

Scholars have for a very long time considered the post-bureaucratic organisation to be the successor of the bureaucratic one. Within the past few decades, the bureaucratic organisation has been seen to contain a range of faults and shortcomings that would make it difficult to survive in the modern world. The introduction of the post-bureaucratic structure was seen to be a remedy of the situation, with a range of firms choosing to apply to this new system. From the organic perspective, the post-bureaucratic organisation is an excellent structure as it pays attention to all the important aspects of a company such as the employees’ needs, the skills and abilities of the workers and the decision making structure of the company. The fact that it involves its employees in the decision making process of the firm also makes the post-bureaucratic structure better at running modern day corporations.

 

 

 

References

Flora, W F & Flora B H 2007, ‘Viewing academic leaders: organizational theory and perspectives’, The John Ben Shepperd Journal of Practical Leadership, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 28-34.

Gitman, L J, & McDaniel, C D 2009, The future of business: the essentials, South-Western Cengage Learning, Mason, OH.

Grey, C 2005, A very short, fairly interesting and reasonably cheap book about studying organization, SAGE, London.

Hodgson, D E 2004, ‘Project work: The legacy of bureaucratic control in the post-bureaucratic organization’, Organization, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 81-100

Maravelias, C & Hansson, J 2005, ‘Freedom in the age of post-bureaucracy: The example of strategic occupational health’, in Paper for the 4th International Critical Management Studies Conference, Judge Institute of Management, University of Cambridge, UK, pp. 1-14.

McKenna, S, Garcia-Lorenzo, L & Bridgman, T 2010, ‘Managing, managerial control and managerial identity in the post-bureaucratic world’, Journal of Management Development, vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 128-136.

Morgan, G 2007, Images of organization, SAGE Publ., Thousand Oaks, Calif. [u.a.].

Muller, R 2003, Communication of information technology project sponsors and managers in buyer-seller relationships, Dissertation.com, [S.l.].

Nollkamper, P E 2004, Fundamentals of law office management: systems, procedures, and ethics, Thomson/Delmar Learning, Clifton Park, NY,

Psichogios, P 2012, 6 major theories of motivation and the implications for employee recognition and engagement, CSIinternational, viewed 29 November 2013, < http://www.csi-international-inc.com/experience-exchange-blog/employee-engagement-motivation.html>

Van Wyk, G n.d., Gareth Morgan’s organisational metaphors, Systems thinking Canada, viewed 27 November 2013, <http://www.systems-thinking.ca/myfiles/GarethMorgan.pdf>

 

Introduction

There are different management theories and models that managers can use to manage their organizations. One of these models is the mechanistic perspective, which views an organization as a machine and people working in it as machine parts (Godwyn and Gittell, 2012). This management perspective is tightly controlled, and employees have limited room for personal inputs. The structured manner through which organizations using this perspective are managed prevents the incorporation of new knowledge into an organization through learning. According to Lipshitz, Popper and Friedman (2007), organizational learning is the process through which groups and individuals learn within an organization. The practices that lead to learning within an organization require some freedom on the part of employees to include creativity in their work. Since organizations using the mechanistic perspective have a definite means of carrying out tasks, with structured and controlled channels of communication, learning is not likely to occur. This paper will explore how mechanistic and bureaucratic organizations might struggle to encourage organizational learning. To achieve this objective, the essay will evaluate different theories related to the mechanistic perspective such as Frederick Taylors’ theory of management, Max Weber’s theory of bureaucracy, Paul du Gay’s perspective on bureaucracy and George Ritzer’s MacDonaldization theory. In addition, the paper will explore learning models such as the brain metaphor, Kolb’s learning cycle and quantum theory in relation to organizational learning. Finally, the paper will critically analyze the relationship between the mechanistic and bureaucratic perspective and organizational learning.

Frederick Taylor came up with the scientific management theory that enabled people to organize resources and create new technologies in the 20^th century. The scientific management theory reinforced the mechanistic approach to organizational management in various ways. First, the theory advocated for the division of labor based on expertise. This division was carried out by the manager and then passed on to the worker with the expertise. The responsibility of organizing work was, therefore, transferred from the worker to the manager. Secondly, Taylor asserted that there was only one way of carrying out a task. Tasks were scientifically examined to determine the most efficient method. Thirdly, the selection and training of employees were done using scientific methods. This theory established hierarchies and supervision to ensure that the established efficiency standards were maintained. Through the hierarchies, responsibilities and authority were distributed to various supervisors and managers.

Max Weber advocated for bureaucracy as the most efficient way through which human activities could be accomplished. According to Weber, the best form of bureaucracy had strict hierarchies, power rested in positions, appointments were based on expertise and rules and regulations governed the management (Tompkins, 2005). One evident similarity between Weber’s theory and Taylor’s scientific management theory is the existence of hierarchies. This theory used the means-to-end rationality where the end justified the means.

Paul du Gay’s contribution to bureaucracy was in the form of defending bureaucracy. Unlike in the past, bureaucracy has received criticism, especially because of its inability to accommodate change. The negative connotations that have been associated with bureaucracy in the recent past have emerged because of the dynamics organizations are experiencing. These changes have been difficult in organizations that are bureaucratic and mechanistic. However, Paul du Gay strongly defended bureaucracy by highlighting some of its befits. Gay argues that hierarchies are useful because they clarify accountability and responsibility. Secondly, job specialization leads to  a successful working process and efficiency. In addition, Gay asserts that operating rules and procedures clarify expectations that guide workers to achieve the expected results. Moreover, impersonality, which is found, in bureaucratic organizations reduces bias and subjectivity, which leads to fair treatment of all employees.

George Ritzer came up with a theory known as MacDonaldization theory. This theory asserts that the Weber’s rationalization theory has persisted up to date. Ritzer questions some aspects of  McDonaldization theory such as efficiency, predictability, calculability and control. Ritzer discredits the  efficiency processes used by organizations such as fast-foods because they force customers to provide free labor through self-service. He criticizes calculability because it reduces the product and service processes to numbers and replace quality with quantity. The predictability aspect of MacDolnadization customizes customer interactions and creates predictable products and customer behavior. The tight control of maims production quality by replacing humans with technology.

The brain metaphor is a comparison between the functions of the human brain and organizational learning. The brain functions as an information processing system where varying information is received, interpreted and assigned meaning. Likewise, an organization receives information from its environment and must process it and take action appropriately. According to Shelton and Darling (2003), managers must be able to think paradoxically, especially in the modern dynamic environments. Once they are able to think paradoxically, they can initiate the thinking process among employees, which can lead to learning. The biggest advantage of using the right hemisphere is that it can solve problems faster. Another learning that takes place in the brain is through experimentation, emotions, creativity and mistakes. Likewise, organizational learning occurs best when experimentation is allowed, the emotional part of people appreciated and mistakes used as  a basis for learning.

To understand how learning occurs in an organization, it is essential to explore learning models that explain the process of learning. One of these models is Kolb’s learning cycle. This cycle describes the process through which organizational learning takes place. The first stage when organizational learning occurs is through personal experience or other people’s experience (Kolb, 1984). The second stage in the cycle involves a reflection process where an individual or group reflects on the  link between theory and experience. This stage is known as reflective observation. The next stage is known as abstract conceptualization. At this stage, people in the organization compare organizational theory using multiple perspectives. Active experimentation is the next stage in the cycle. This stage involves the application of theory to future practices after  learning its relevance.

Another theory that has a significant relevance to organizational learning is quantum theory. This theory characterizes the world as subjective, dynamic, and self organizing. The theory provides seven skills that help organizational leaders to examine their mental models and increase their organizations’ capacity to learn. One of these skills is quantum thinking, which is the ability of people in an organization to think paradoxically. This skill is derived from quantum physics research that indicates that the world is paradoxical and illogical. This theory advocates for the management of an organization from the view that it is illogical, nonlinear, dynamic and irrational. The theory, therefore, advocates for management practices based on contingencies and not on predetermined fixed methods.

From the analysis of theories related the mechanistic perspective and learning theory, it is clear that the mechanistic perspective hinders organizational learning. From the scientific theory of management by Taylor, the responsibility of deciding how the work is to be done is transferred from the worker to the manager. This denies the worker a chance to include creativity in the work. According to Conti (2011), when employees are chosen based on their expertise, and their ability to focus on results, the organization becomes homogeneous in terms of knowledge. Employees possess similar knowledge, which limits the organizational learning capabilities. Furthermore, when employees are highly specialized as required by Taylor, Gay and Weber, there can be no need for learning since every employee is focused on their areas of expertise. This clearly shows that the mechanistic approach is likely to struggle to encourage organizational learning.

Shelton and Darling (2003) argue that organizational thinking has been affected negatively by the mechanistic approach to management. The problem with this approach is that it assumes that reality is objective, and learning can only be accomplished through scientific data analysis. This analysis is flawed because as outlined by the quantum theory, the world is subjective and dynamic. From a practical point of view, I experienced the relevance of subjectivity and people’s opinions in work situations. When I worked in a certain hotel, the number of guests who came to a conference being hosted by the hotel exceeded the number expected. This created a problem for the management because the conference room was packed and no space was left to fit in new chairs. The managers spent a lot of time thinking about the solution. One intern in the organization was carrying sets to the conference room and heard the dilemma in which the managers were. He interrupted them because he wanted to suggest a solution. The restaurant manager almost discontinued his internship because he thought no solution could be provided by an intern. However, the general manager allowed the intern to talk. The intern suggested that they should use smaller seats that would fit many people. Since the hotel had them, they were exchanged with the big ones and all the guests were accommodated. This example is consistent with the contingency theory that suggest that there is no specific way of solving a problem, but rather the solution depends on the prevailing factors at the time. Therefore, an organization that allows learning and adoption of new ideas allow subjectivity and value people’s contributions. Had such a situation occurred in a mechanistic organization, the managers would have spent a lot of time trying to resolve the issue unsuccessfully.

The double loop learning model shows that learning takes place when people can freely reflect on contexts and be able to question the appropriateness of actions. This cannot be possible in mechanistic organizations because their operations are guided by rules and regulations that cannot be questioned. Another requirement for organizational learning to take place is the ability to develop responses when new requirements arise. In mechanistic organizations, employees creativity and response capabilities are curtailed by the highly controlled environment and standardized procedure of  working. Therefore, these organizations may struggle to encourage organizational learning because their environments are opposed to organizational learning requirements.

The mechanistic approach was successful in the 20^th century because organizational environments were stable and functioned in a logical manner and results were predictable. Those organizations currently using the mechanistic approach are unwilling to change and continue to use the single loop learning model. This model shows that habits that have been learned over time inhibit learning. Therefore, mechanistic organizations’ structures, processes and procedures are inhibiting factors to learning. For them to encourage organizational learning, they will have to struggle because they are unwilling to change the structures, processes and procedures. A good example of how an organization that allows learning is the Springfield Remanufacturing Compay. Although not from my direct experience, I experienced the organizational situation indirectly through a friend who worked there. There was a time when truck drivers went on strike, and no steel could be delivered to the company. The  company’s president asked employees to think of a way to deliver steel to the organization, without drawing the truckers’ attention. One employee suggested that the company should use school buses while another suggested using nuns to deliver the material. The president later used school buses driven by nuns and delivered steel to the company. Therefore, the operations of the company went on because the organization allowed employees to learn new ways of doing things. If the same situation happened in a mechanistic organization, the operations would have to wait until the truck drivers called off the strike.

According to the MacDolnadization theory of bureaucracy, customer service is based on the script (Miner, 2011). Employees cannot innovate new ways of solving customer problems because they have to follow the rules. Without experimentation of the best applicable practices in different situations, the employees cannot learn. Instead, they become detached to their work, lose motivation and become alienated. Such organizations that use MacDolnadization theory find it hard to implement learning within their current organizational structure and practices.

According to Hoogervorst, Koopman and Flier (2005), mechanistic organizations treat employees like instruments that can be disposed once they become obsolete. Such organizations cannot expect to  implement organizational learning easily while mistreating its employees. Conner and Douglas (2005) argue that employees have needs for dominance, achievement and autonomy. Such employees learn new ideas when their personal needs  have been fulfilled. This view challenges the argument by bureaucratic theories that mechanistic perspective eliminates impersonality and leads to equal treatment. Some personal perspective at work are important and can lead to the learning capabilities.

Conclusion

Taylor’s theory of scientific management, Weber’s theory of bureaucracy, Gay’s views on bureaucracy and Ritzer’s MacDonaldization theory have clearly shown that mechanistic and bureaucratic organizations are rigid and inhibit any change, including organizational learning. On the other hand, the brain metaphor model, Kolb’s learning cycle and the quantum theory, have demonstrated the ideal conditions required for organizational learning to thrive. From the information provided by the latter models and theories, the conditions that favor organizational learning are absent in mechanistic and bureaucratic organizations. In addition, several authors have attested to the negative effects of mechanistic and bureaucratic structures to organizational learning. Work standardization, strict organization structures, adherence to rules and the use of employees like machines are some of the inhibiting factors to organizational learning. Since mechanistic organizations resist change, they are unlikely to change these factors. As a result, these organizations will struggle to encourage organizational learning.

 

 

References

Conner, D.S., & Douglas, S.C. 2005. Organizationally-induced work stress: the role of employee bureaucratic orientation. Work stress, 34 (2), 210-224.

Conti, T. 2011. Panaceas for organizational disease, but better knowledge and systems thinking. The TQM journal, 23 (3), 252-267.

Godwyn, M., & Gittell, J. H. (2012). Sociology of organizations: structures and relationships. Thousand Oaks: Pine Forge Press.

Hoogervorst, J.A.P., Koopman, P.L., & Flier, A. 2005. Total quality management : the need for an employee-centred coherent approach. Total quality management,  17 (1), 92-106.

Kolb, D. 1984. Experiential Learning: experience as the source of learning and development. London: Prentice Hall.

Lipshitz, R., Popper, M., & Friedman, V. 2007. Demystifying organizational learning. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

Miner, J. B. (2011). Organizational Behavior 6 Integrated Theory Development and the Role of the Unconscious.. Armonk: M.E. Sharpe, Inc.

Shelton, C.D., & Darling, J.R. 2003. From theory to practice: using new science concepts to create learning organizations. The learning organizations, 10 (6), 353-360.

Tompkins, J. (2005). Organization theory and public management. Australia: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.

Media Analysis

Thesis statement

The role of the media becomes increasingly important when nationalism goes through a period of transformation, as happens for example when the physical boundaries of the nation-state change or there is a need to include or exclude new people. However, globalization poses a new challenge to national identity. Traditionally, the media served a national function that increasingly is no longer necessarily the case. Again, this underlines the importance of media and communications, and their contribution to the consequences of globalization (Yousuf, 2007). One of the challenges in the multi-local analysis is to see both the global and the national in the everyday life of individuals. If we acknowledge the role of media and communications in globalization, it would be prudent to acknowledge that the outcome of this marriage can either be homogenization or heterogenization or both, depending on the historical situation and circumstances. In a multi-sited analysis, the challenge is to be able to see how people are connected to each other not only in their reception, but also in their use of media and communications (Yousuf, 2007).

There are various reasons that enlighten the shift from cultural imperialism to globalization. To begin with, the end of the cold war as a global framework for geopolitical, ideological, and economic rivalry calls for review of the analytic categories and paradigms of thought (Pascale, 2005). Secondly, globalization replaced cultural imperialism because it represents a process that is inconsistent and lacks direction, which might result into the deterioration of cultural unity of all countries, not only those in the developing world. Lastly, globalization has surfaced as a key component across the humanities and social sciences, a trend undoubtedly affecting the discipline of communication. Yousuf (2007) further notes that globalization of culture has become a theoretical magnet of theorizing efforts and attracting research from an assortment of disciplines and interdisciplinary formations such as comparative literature, anthropology, communication and media studies, cultural studies, sociology, and geography. It is an undeniable fact that the media is a key ingredient for cultural globalization, but the size and strength to the effect of the media on cultural globalization is a contested issue. Therefore, this begs the question; did the mass media trigger and create the globalization of culture?

One perspective on the globalization culture, somewhat reminiscent of cultural imperialism in terms of the consequence of media on culture, but to some extent different in its conceptualization of the issue, is the observation that the media often leads to the homogenization of culture differences across the planet. In this context, media globalization is critically discussed in terms of the further penetration of American cultures and worldviews (Perera, 2009). Nonetheless, such a view would be unproductively US-centric if it were to take no notice of the increase in exports that are not of Western origin and non-Western intraregional flows. In the past decade, a “West vs. the Rest” paradigm has been seriously contested in the studies of media and cultural globalization with the increase in the media flows from non-Western regions. In many parts of the world, media and cultural flows have been significantly de-Westernized or de-Americanized. Perera (2009) notes that this development can be positively regarded as evidence of the relative demise of the western, especially American, cultural hegemony as well as a salutary corrective to a West-centric analysis of media and cultural globalization. However, it can also be read symptomatically in relation to the development of cultural globalization, whereby more non-western media contents are circulation and being promoted in the global markets (Perera, 2009).

Another notable trend of media globalization is the increasing centrality of localism based on cultural adaptation. While cultural globalization is often discussed in terms of the homogenization of world culture, cultural specificity and diversity are no less articulated in the process. As demonstrated by the term globalization, the strategy of tailoring cultural products to local conditions has become a marketing strategy for transnational media corporations in order to achieve global market penetration (Pascale, 2005). Another perspective of media globalization is cultural hybridization. This observation calls for an understanding of the boundary of localization and globalization as a vibrant process and hybrid product of cultural forms and mixed traditions. Hence, this viewpoint does not give any significance to globalization as a homogenizing force, nor does it consider domestication as a resistive process in comparison to globalization. To a certain extent, globalization of media calls for emphasis on processes of mediation that it views as fundamental to cultural globalization. The theory of media globalization is a result of interdisciplinary work that deals with academic projects such as cultural studies, post-colonialism, and performance studies (Perera, 2009).

An important part of contemporary globalization is the globalization of modern information and communication technologies and new media, and the impact this has had on globalization generally. The global communications industry has a general influence on what we can roughly distinguish as both the contents and the forms of media which contribute to cultural globalization and bear upon its impact on globalization in the wider sense. One interpretation ties  cultural globalization to the “cultural imperialism thesis” in such a way that the dominance of especially American culture over other cultures is leading to a spread of western values and the weakening of local cultures (Perera, 2009). For people living under oppressive political regimes or in poverty, visions of democracy, affluence, and consumer lifestyles on television have certainly fed dissatisfaction with local practices values, traditions, aspirations, and misery and poverty for Western lifestyles, identities, practices and so forth.

In general terms, globalization is the fast developing process of intricate interconnections between cultures, societies, individuals and institutions world-wide. Globalizations shrinks’ the theory of detachment between various cultures by reducing the time taken to cross the distance that physically separates them (Yousuf, 2007). As a result, the world seems smaller, and in a certain sense it brings human beings in closer contact with each other. More often than not, it has been stated that globalization media will lead to devolution of power and create room for more bottom-up control. However, according to detractors of globalization, global communications are mostly connected with notions such as media imperialism and cultural imperialism. In this case, they see global communications as a vehicle whose main aim is to invade, undermine, and control, other cultures. The transmitted ideological or cultural pattern has often been seen as an invasion of Western values, particularly by those of America.   While some people criticize Western culture as being voracious, another school of thought supports it because it is the face of the free market and they often consider the disparity of flow as an attribute of the wider media market, which has the benefit for all (Perera, 2009). On the other hand, the theorists of free flow tend to think that global media has little voracious effect because its audience is voluntary, thus they argue that the content of global media is ideologically innocent and culturally neutral (Golding & Harris, 1997).

People who are in support of the idea that globalized media is more or less the same as cultural imperialism tend to assume that global mass media is a procedure for cause and effect, to the extent that the media relays ideas and opinions from senders to receivers, and from one place to another. As such, new voices have supported media globalization. Scholars have observed that the cultural imperialism perspective on globalization as forming the dominant perspective on globalization as forming the dominant perspective used to explain the implications of globalization and its impact on local/national cultures. On the other hand, other scholars have articulated a critique of globalization and its influence of national cultures that generates the parallel argument of media imperialism (Yousuf, 2007). Media imperialism suggests that because media play a central role in shaping cultural processes and practices and is dominated by Western ownership, the cultural products and media outputs in lesser developed countries are forced to occupy a position of subordination, not only on the international scene, but on the local one as well.

Cultural imperialism theorists see the impact of globalization as a hegemonic scheme that comprises the cultural integrity of recipient cultures. The values espoused by imported cultures are not reflective of those espoused locally, and so do not contribute to the building of national consciousness. Notwithstanding the strengths of their arguments, proponents of the cultural imperialism strain of globalization have been widely criticized by theorists who view their perspective as decidedly romantic and curiously oblivious to available empirical evidence that suggests otherwise. Aided by a postmodern theoretical sensibility, the global cultural perspective contends that globalization instead of overpowering indigenous cultures and engendering a mono-culture, leads to cultural hybridity (Perera, 2007). As a result, those who are in support of global cultural perspective chide the cultural imperialism argument for its assumption that the media audiences of respective countries are cultural simpletons incapable of negotiating or even resisting such messages. The cultural proximity argument is further elaborated on when theorists draw attention to the enlargement of culture that occurs through globalization when so called peripheral actors themselves become exporters of cultural commodities.

One cannot study the consequences of globalization without acknowledging that the outcome can either be heterogeneous or homogeneous, or even both depending on specific circumstances. It is not easy to understand the complex nature of globalization where connectivity has become increasingly mediated. Not only does this represent a standardization of content, but also a subversive globalization wherein cultural imperialism is a perpetuated in a more subtle form. Recognizing the significance of cultural proximity television executives attempt to indigenize these imported formats usually by employing a local talent. Indigenization should also draw upon the traditions and cultural specificity of a locality. Unless this is so, imported television formats are more representative of the genetic homogeneity of content where formats of global media output are increasingly standardized. The role of the media becomes increasingly important when nationalism goes through a period of transformation, for example when the physical boundaries of the nation-state change or there is a need to include or exclude new people (Finley & Diversi, 2010). However, globalization poses a new challenge to cultural identity. This is because electronic media is able to bring about not only national, but global communities in their quest for crossing borders. Even though this underlines the importance of media and communications, but it also helps to shed light on the consequences of globalization (Yousuf, 2007).

It is evident that various cultures, in their capacity to maintain distinctiveness of identity attachments, have been affected by globalization in one way or the other. The tensions and complexities introduced by the multiethnic constitutions of societies arising from global population movements, which is a constant feature of all present-day nation-states often poses obvious problems for the continued cultural binding. Therefore, it is essential to take a more intricate view of the globalization process in comparison to how it has been adopted, certainly in the polemical discourses of the anti-globalization movement, where globalization is often described as the globalization of capitalism, attained in its cultural aspect via a complicit western controlled media system. This intricate, diverse conceptualization, often views globalization as operating concurrently and interrelated in the economic, cultural, political, and technological spheres of human life.   However, the cultural implication that is rather agreeable to some is that globalization is not about the simple imposed distribution of a particular western lifestyle such as capital-consumerist or possessive individualist, but a more complicated dissemination of the entire range of institutional features of cultural modernity (Finley & Diversi, 2010).

Furthermore, modernity also institutionalizes and regulates cultural practices, including those that belong to a place or community. More often than not, the mode of such imagination is often known as cultural identity usually in the context of self and communal definitions based around specific, usually politically inflicted differentiations such as sexuality, gender, race, religion, class, nationality, or ethnicity. As much as globalization is a source for institutional features of modernity across all cultures, it is also a catalyst of identity especially where in the past there were possibly more specific, more inchoate, and a reduced amount of socially policed belongings. Hence, it can be said that this is the most noteworthy cultural consequence of globalization, a consequence felt at the basic level of cultural experience. This cultural consequence might, on a narrow reading, be seen as cultural imperialism because this modern institutionalization of cultural attachments clearly arose first in the West.   For those people who like to detect the play of logics in the cultural process, globalization could be seen as involving a social process which runs from ethnic groups to national societies, super-state blocs and eventually a world-state society.

If there is an emergent global society, the impetus would seem to be coming from social and cultural frameworks and the activities of specific groups of people and other collective agents such as nation-states   which further these developments in terms of their potential as forms of empowerment. It is evident that the trend of growing worldwide interconnectedness or globalization has been gone along with various clashing aspects of cultural difference. The rising salience of cultural divergence is part of a wide-ranging cultural turn, which involves an extensive self-reflexivity of modernity. Globalization can be compared to steamroller because it has been advancing, hence; erasing biological and cultural diversity in its way, thus not only the gains, but also the losses are becoming apparent (Gordon, 2008).

It can be argued that globalization of the last half of the 20^th century is nothing new, but rather is a continuation of a previous wave of globalization. The globalization landscape is vast and the constituting elements multiple (Pascale, 2005). In this regard, it would be prudent to analyze how gender shapes and curves the globalization landscape and vice versa. This can be done by simultaneously looking at how globalization shapes the lives of men and women in a local setting and by looking at men and women as actors in global and cultural processes. In the steadily growing literature on globalization, a gender perspective is missing; while in the literature on gender and globalization, the phenomenon of globalization is taken for granted and, thus, stays underexposed. The analysis of the relation between gender and globalization tends to be restricted to either a global perspective such as social and political restructuring, neo-liberal economic, or a perspective concentrated on local effects of global influences (Friedman, 2010).

Different practices, in particular local settings, produce different meanings of gender. Therefore, gender seems to be crucial in the production of differences in global/cultural dynamics. Globalization only appears as an economic process of restructuring, leaving out questions on social, political and cultural changes. Also, globalization is often considered as a process beyond the control of women. Women seem victims without being an active part of the cultural changes, but at the same time women are called upon to awaken and resist globalization. Hence, the impact of globalization is fixed and sometimes even assumed at the local level. In the process of analyzing along these lines, gender issues are being reduced to poverty issues and gender is substituted by women (Finley & Diversi, 2010). As a result, this representation of globalization does not address the complexities of global restructuring; instead it pictures a homogenous and one-dimensional process. Attention to gender and globalization is a welcome contribution to that bulk of literature on globalization that has no attention for gender. Nevertheless, by portraying globalization only as a monstrous phenomenon in which women reappear as victims, gender becomes this one-dimensional category.  Moreover, globalization also appears as a monolithic phenomenon, destructive and negative. Globalization disconnects culture and gender from a specific locality. This is because, it is not only people and tangible things, but also ideas and images such as modernity, democracy and gender relations that travel (Finley & Diversi, 2010).

In conclusion, it is evident that globalization is bringing about change in a social way.  Regardless of the fact that globalization is a fiercely contested phenomenon, there is some conformity that globalization involves a new structure of bridging social distances. Although individuals and families are affected by this phenomenon, not much interest has been has been focused on the social side of globalization. This lapse has taken place, in spite of a general awareness that in a global framework the meanings of the various groups that are a part of globalization have been changed. Currently, the analysis of globalization continues to focus almost entirely on the political and economic areas. In fact, for many, globalization primarily describes the transformations in the world economy. However, conventional approaches to globalization do not look into the effects of this phenomenon on cultures, families, individuals, and societies. Globalization is often perceived as an autonomous force removed from social interactions. Critics of this approach point out that globalization itself is a construction of a specific account of global space and interaction, and that incorporating families, societies, communities, and societies with a grasp if national and transnational economies and politics, gives them a greater insight into the effects and dynamics of the observable fact. In other words, globalization is only an economic or political force, but globalization is collectively constructed; a dynamic fact that is itself constantly under renovation, in part through human activity. By reducing globalization to economic or political concept or variable, its impacts are shortchanged, while the enormity of the phenomenon is diminished.

 

References

Finley, S., & Diversi, M. (2010). Critical Homelessness: Expanding Narratives Of Inclusive Democracy. Cultural Studies <=> Critical Methodologies, 10(1), 4-13.

 

Friedman, J. (2010). Journal of the American Ethnological Society. Globalization as a discourse of hegemonic crisis: A global systemic analysis, 40(2), 244-257.

Gordon, N. S. (2008). Media and the Politics of Culture: The case of Television and Privatization and Media Globalization in Jamaica (1990-2007). Florida: Universal-Publishers.

Pascale, C. (2005). There’s No Place Like Home: The Discursive Creation Of Homelessness. Cultural Studies <=> Critical Methodologies, 5(2), 250-268.

Perera, S. (2009). White shores of longing: ‘Impossible subjects’ and the frontiers of citizenship. Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies, 23(5), 647–662.

Yousuf, Z. (2007). Unravelling Identities: Citizenship And Legitimacy In A Multicultural Britain. European Journal of Cultural Studies, 10(3), 360-373.

Bayeux Tapestry Experience-The Battle of Hastings

Dear Brother,

I write this letter to inform you that I am still very much alive. The introduction of this letter may be awkward but I have been forced to take such drastic measures as proactive action to assure you and everyone back at home that I am alive and well in case inaccurate information of my death is sent from the battlefield. My comrade in battle Timothy had to endure the awkwardness of meeting his uncle and father who had come to collect his body given they had received a report of his death in battle. While I sympathize with his predicament, I cannot help but worry about the families of the deceased who continue on with their lives unaware of the fact that their kin died in the vicious battle.

That aside, I hope that everybody at home is alive and well. It has been two months since we last saw each other and I miss everyone dearly. I miss the hearty meals that mother prepares as well as the jokes Joseph never seems to run out of. Back here in the battlefield I can say that so far all has been well save for yesterday’s battle. I am sure you can bear me witness when I say that I came to this war a coward who was had hardly seen any battle other than the mock fights we had using the wooden swords back at the barracks. The few battles that we have fought have gradually initiated a process of replacing that fear with a strong will to survive by any means necessary. The cold nights and the soldier’s diet definitely hastened the process.

When King Edward the Confessor passed on earlier in the year nobody would have predicted that it would place our Kingdom under so much threat. Under the newly crowned King Harold’s orders we were commanded to go and defend the island from Norman invaders. This was initially a scary prospect given the fact that we had received news of William’s building of a massive naval force. A few days to his landing, we saw a comet and this struck fear and negativity in the hearts of many of us on the battlefield. As you know the passing of the comet has never brought good tidings to our people. Despite this we soldiered on, waiting for them a distance from the beach as our training only allowed us to engage in battles on land. By this time we were at the Hastings ground. The tranquility of the landscape was in stark contrast to the fire burning in our hearts as we were about to defend our land from invaders whose leader William claimed that he was the rightful heir to the throne due to a promise Edward made to him.

By evening the sea breeze was bringing towards our direction the smell of burning grass and it confirmed our fears. William’s men were torching houses that were in the villages close to the beach. This seemed to foreshadow the events of the following day. The increased frequency of to and fro trips by the emissaries signaled the nearing of the battle. That night before retiring to rest the commander of the fyrd told us to ensure we have our swords and battle axes. The following morning at around nine o’clock the battle commenced. Those who were mounted on horses rode ahead of us and as soon as they dismounted we could hear a mixture of clashing swords, the cries of horses and men, thuds of people falling.  By this time we were charging toward the melee swords in hand.

Our confidence was part inspired by the fact that we had some of the best archers in the land covering us from behind. By the time we reached the epicenter of the action the ground was littered with bodies from both sides. Initially we appeared to have the upper hand and this made us push on. The Normans who seemed to be retreating suddenly turned on us swiftly turning the tables. Upon realizing that this tactic was working for them, William’s men adopted this trick. The confusion across the battlefield made it impossible for those of us who survived the counter-attack to convey the message to our comrades. I managed to survive by lying still among a group of bodies and though this was a cowardly act it saved my life as there was no hope of fighting back. Later that day it was clear that we had lost the battle.

When the Normans returned to their base celebrating the victory, I rose from the ground and took to my heels back to our base where I found other equally disillusioned soldiers. The smell of blood filled the air around us since our base was closer to the battlefield. Now our force is greatly decimated by the attack and we just sit here awaiting the next orders. On the brighter side however, rations seem to be more given that there are significantly less mouths to feed. It is not much of a consolation but it is all we can hold on to for now. Now more than ever it is clear that William is extremely determined and capable of taking the throne from Harold.

References

Körner, S. (1964).The Battle of Hastings, England, and Europe, 1035-1066 (Vol. 14). CWK Gleerup.ces

Wilson, D. M. (1985). The Bayeux Tapestry (p. 190). London: Thames and Hudson.

 

 

Health care in long term care settings

Healthcare is a fundamental need in any society. Long-term healthcare has for many years provided an opportunity for many people unable to make their way to hospital get healthcares services. Long-term care settings consist of facilities or institutions such as skilled nursing facilities and nursing homes that provide healthcare to people unable to manage independently in communities (CDC, 2013). The cares represents chronic care management, custodial or short-term rehabilitative services. This discussion delineates on the issues concerning the care provided in these long-term care settings.

Long-term healthcare settings play a fundamental role in the provision of healthcare and this is the reason why quality and patient safety are important. According to  CDC (2013), an estimated 3.2 million Americans live in the  skilled nursing facilities and homes as they participated in the Medicaid and Medicare programs in 2008.  Furthermore, it is estimated that more than one million people live in assisted living facilities. Many people use these facilities and are essential as they provide quality and patient safety.

At the same time a high level of care is required in these long-term care settings to avoid, prevent and lessen the effects of injury and harm on the patients.  Research indicates that within nursing centers, one of the safety challenges is to prevent falls. Research shows that three out of four centers experience resident falls every year as an average resident falls around two to three times in every year (Rubenstein et al., 1990). Many of the centers have more than 100 patients falling every year (Rubenstein, Robbin, & Josephson et al., 1990). This therefore, is a concern and enough reason why they are required to put in place sufficient measures to ensure that they prevent such risks that further worsen the health and the recovery of the patients.

Maintaining a safe environment is a sign of compassion and vigilance on the welfares of the patients and is reflection of a competent healthcare.  Quality and safety increase the confidence of the patients and is essential in motivating and attracting new students to nursing.  This also engages current professionals to develop innovative models of care delivery that retains and nurtures future generations.

Quality and patient safety is the right of the patient.  All patients have the constitutional right to better and quality healthcare (Rubenstein, Robbin, & Josephson et al. 1990).  Therefore, ensuring high standards of care and personal safety is imperative. It also plays a key role in reducing or preventing other complications hence helping to reduce the time that the patient takes at a nursing facility.

One of the key challenges in the provision of quality/patient safety is the increased number of falls. These falls are caused by various factors and affect the quality of care provided to the patients.  Most of the people fall because of various reasons such as impaired vision, because of being on medication and other medical complications such as dementia among others (Rubenstein, Robbin, & Josephson et al., 1990). Environmental factors also contribute to the increased number of people that fall such as the designs of the facilities. Some of the facilities have poor and inadequate lighting systems, slippery and wet floors.  Poor organization and arrangement of facilities and equipment also is a risk challenge that increases the number of people that fall.

Another challenge that leads to compromise in quality and personal safety is lack of adequate and trained staff to take care of the nursing centers.  Some of the centers have incompetent personnel who do not understand how to take good acre of the patients and this compromise on the level of quality.

Other challenges regarding the quality of patient safety is inadequate resources in terms of financials, which hampers effective provision of services in the facilities (Hill, Nguyen, & Shaha et al. 2009). Finances are essential in recruiting competent and enough staffs to take care of the patients in these centers. Money is also required to provide good housing facilities and medications for the patients. Therefore, in the circumstances where there is a shortage of funds, it poses a greater challenge on operations of the centers. Other challenges include water, basic sanitation and waste management. This is a challenge that occurs when the facility has inadequate financial support. The facilities provided may not be adequate for the patients and this compromise on the quality and patient safety.

Despite the challenges, there is always a room to improve the situation for the better. The quality of care is measured by assessing the structure, processes and the outcome. Structure is concerned about the availability, accessibility and quality of resources such as bed capacity, insurance cover and number of nurses and training among others, (Hughes, 2009). Processes measure the accessibility of services by patients and providers, while the outcome is the result of the care. The three strategies that can be adopted to ensure improvement in the quality and patient safety include, total quality management, continuous quality improvement and quality assurance. Total quality management is a strategy that brings all the stakeholders together and incorporates all the processes aimed at creating and environment that can be improved (Hughes, 2009).  It requires the commitment of all the organization to quality and improvement in order to achieve better results. Continuous quality improvement strategy help in development of clinical practice and operates on the premise that there is always and opportunity for improvement in every occasion. The last is the quality assurance study that allows the concerned party to focus on the areas that have been identified by an oversight committee or any other body for improvement. All these strategies are effective if well implemented. The reason therefore, for selecting these strategies is that they have the potential of ensuring that there is commitment in achieving positive change as they incorporate or bring together all the stakeholders. They also ensure that gaps or areas that require attention are given priority and this helps to improve and enhance the quality and patient safety.

It is very essential for any healthcare facility to ensure that they uphold to the expected standards in their provision of services. To achieve this, there are various ways that these facilities get recommendation and go ahead or continue with their services. They include, licencure, certification, accreditation or through an oversight committee.  The focus here is on licensure. This is a process that requires a government to grant permission for an individual or heath organization to operate in a given profession or occupation. They ensure that the individual or organization meets the standards to protect safety and public health. The procedure goes through various processes (Rooney & Van ostenberg, 1999). The first thing is that the individual is examined to establish the level of education to ascertain competence. The person may be required to pay some cash, renewable yearly.  An organizational license is given after an on site inspection to establish whether it meets minimal health standards.  The license needs yearly renewal the organization to continue its operation.

In conclusion, long-term healthcare settings play a significant role in the provision of healthcare. They need to be well served with equipment and qualified personals to help overcome various challenges. Various strategies can be adopted such as quality assurance to help manage some of the challenges in these facilities. Government authorities and other oversights committees have also a role to ensure that these facilities meet the standards through their licensure, accreditation and certification programs.

References

CDC. (2013). Healthcare-associated infections (HAIs). Retrieved form:             http://www.cdc.gov/HAI/settings/ltc_settings.html

Hill, E., Nguyen, T., & Shaha M, et al. (2009). Person-environment interactions contributing to     nursing home resident falls, Res Gerontol Nurs, 2(4):287-296.

Hughes, R. (2009). Patient Safety and Quality: An Evidence-Based Handbook for Nurses.           Retrieved from: http://www.ihf-           fih.org/en/content/download/345/2692/file/Licensure,%20Accreditation,%20and%20Cert            ification.pdf

Rooney, A., & Van ostenberg, P. (1999).  Licensure, accreditation, and certification: Approaches             to health service quality. Retrieved from: http://www.ihf-       fih.org/en/content/download/345/2692/file/Licensure,%20Accreditation,%20and%20Cert      ification.pdf

Rubenstein, L., Robbin, A., & Josephson, K et al. (1990).  The value of assessing falls in an          elderly population: A randomized clinical trial. Ann Intern Med 1990; 113(4):308-316.

Literary Analysis of the poem “Song of a Dark Girl” by Langston Hughes

Poetry is one of the medium that poets convey their opinions, views and suggestions to their audiences. Poets use different styles and techniques to ensure that their messages are understood. This discussion is a critical analysis of Langston Hughes poem, “Song of a Dark Girl”.

The poet employs allusion in enhancing understanding of the setting of the poem.  The poet begins the poem with the stanza, “Why down South in Dixie” (1,5,9).  The use of the words south ‘Dixie’ indicates that the setting of the poem is in South America.  Dixie was a famous song during the 19^th century sung to celebrate the glory of the South.  Therefore, using this in the introduction part of the poem sets the impression that the poem setting was in the South American.  The irony in the use of the song is that whites sang it and it demeaned and patronized the African Americans. Therefore, the use of the song aims at portraying the racial discrimination and the mistreatment of the black Americans. Even though, this is not implicitly manifest, some of the stanzas portray the harsh treatment of the black Americans by the whites. Furthermore, the repetition of the stanza and Dixie makes the poem more ironic.

The word ‘song’ also carries ironic forces as well. The poem tone is developed as sad but the author opts to use the word ‘song’ associated with happiness or jubilation. The narrator is lamenting for the tragedy that befell her and yet Hughes uses song.  The author could have used another word such as lamentation to match well with the tone of the poem. However, his use of the word catches the readers by surprise. Furthermore, his first line seems to portray the attractiveness of the southland but this is not the case in the rest of the poem. This style spices up the poem and makes it more appealing to the readers.

The use of the word “girl” in the title of the poem indicates that she is a young and innocent person. Therefore, this makes the death of a young lover who the narrator loved unbearable and painful experience. The effects could have been less severe if the author used  “woman “instead of “girls” because the effects could not be that severe as the narrator would have managed the situation  because of the experience and understanding that is how life is all about. Therefore, through this, the author portrays the innocence of the girl and the wicked power that the lynch mobs have in creating emotions in the poem.

The diction or the choice of words the author uses is simple and direct. The author’s decision to use this language is to indicate the level of education of the narrator as unsophisticated. This is demonstrated in the line “Break the heart of me” (2, 10). The order of the words is unusual and conventionally expressed. The right word order should have been, “they broke my heart”.

The repetition and capitalizing of the first letters in the first stanza is meant to indicate that the song was composed in South. The use of the word, “to across roads tree” (4) is used to symbolize and to create an image of a martyr. It symbolizes the death of Jesus Christ. The narrator therefore, wants to portray that the lynching of her lover was unfair sacrifice. The author also wants the readers to see the young man as Christ like, as he does not spell the word as “crossroads”.  The narrator also describes the body hanging on the tree, a similar description on the mistreatment of Jesus Christ in the line, “bruised body high in air” (6).

The plot of the poem is about a young woman that laments on the death or lynch of her love. The setting is in the plot. The anguish and the suffering in the heart of the young woman is exemplified through the vivid language the author uses (Cicely 2). One of the stanzas which shows and symbolizes the suffering and the lamentation of the young woman is, “I asked the white Lord Jesus what was the use of prayer” (7, 8). The narrator is disillusioned to the level of questioning Jesus why her prayers could not be answered. She feels that the Lord Jesus who is supposed to be her savior has also abandoned her to wallow in despair.

In conclusion, Hughes’ creative poem projects the injustice society that lynches the   young man.  The young girl is mourning and is helplessness. She feels that her lover has been sacrificed. To achieve this, the author uses different literary devices such as illusion, irony, and symbolism to depict the helplessness of the girl.  She fears that no one is on her side, not even Jesus Christ himself. Therefore, this poem depicts the injustices and atrocities that were done in the South.   The use of black young lover aims to project the aspect of racism and mistreatment directed to the blacks.

 

Works cited

Cicely Richard. “Poetry Analysis Song for a Dark Girl by Langston Hughes”.             http://www.humanities360.com/index.php/poetry-analysis-song-for-a-dark-girl-by-            langston-hughes-9935/

Langston Hughes. “Songs for a Dark Girl.”   http://www.mesacc.edu/~barmd97231/SongforaDarkGirl.html

 

 

Failure Analysis

Initiating a business has the capability of leading to financial independence, and at the same time has the capability of initiating a road to ruin. There are diverse factors that come into play in defining a success or a failure of a business. Some of the critical issues identify with startup costs, operating costs, extremely depending on other people or organizations, engaging the wrong employees and unhealthy cash flow. Other factors are; leadership styles, organizational structure, mode of communication, objectives, mission, vision and management. This paper reflects at factors contributing to the failure of Blockbuster and the success of Apple.

Blockbuster Entertainment Inc. or Blockbuster LLC is an example of a failed business. The multinational American firm provided video game rental services and home movie rental services through video rental shops, DVD-by-mail, video on demand, streaming and cinema theater as part of the core objectives (Taylor, 2013). Blockbuster faced stiff competition from Rebbox and Netflix among others hence filing for bankruptcy in 2010. The company was later purchased by Dish Network. The failure of Blockbuster business process management is directed at not changing the organizational trends with the changing business environment (Taylor, 2013). Blockbuster failed to recognize the changing consumer needs in the target market. Blockbuster engaged autocratic leadership, unclear communications models and hierarchical organizational structure. Vision statement of Blockbuster focused on valuing diversity and the mission statement focused on focused on the best models of serving the target customers (Taylor, 2013).

Apple Inc. is a public multinational company that has been successful over the years. There are high indications that Apple changes with the times and spearhead the changes depending on the needs and wants of the customers in the technology industry, as part of the key objectives (Isaacson, 2013). It has been noted that people creating Apple products enjoy using them, Apple products are easy to use, Apple beliefs in keeping things simple, Apple offers great in store and customer service experiences, Apple targets on products that they can do better and that Apple manages a gap of two years ahead of the competitors (Isaacson, 2013). Apple fosters strategic leadership, innovation, open communication and a flat organizational structure to evade bureaucracy. The vision of Apple focus on creating beautiful, sleek and easy to use technology in real life situations; the mission of Apple argues that man is the creator of change and that Apple is in place to bring out the change (Isaacson, 2013).

Apple engages learning theory which is also referred to as the behavioral analytic theory of change. This has been possible by analyzing complex behaviors within the organization and coming up with simple behaviors that are accustomed to the vision and the mission of the organization (Isaacson, 2013). Blockbuster failed to change with the changing environment, due to holding on the old ways of doing things (Taylor, 2013).

Social cognitive theory is also referred to as the social learning where the behavior of individuals and organizations is guided by the internal and the external environmental elements. Apple considers the external environment as the guide to the internal environment contributing to its success (Isaacson, 2013). Blockbuster on the contrary believed so must on its internal environment and failed to recognize the changing needs and wants of the target customers in the external environment, hence contributing to its failure (Taylor, 2013).

Management, leadership, organizational structures and the organizational cultures in Apple and in Blockbuster contributed to the fate of the two organizations. The operations of Apple respect simplicity guided by the Steve Job’s model, as compared to the Blockbuster that engaged complex model of operations. Apple thinks brutal, small, clarity and human as pertaining to the changing business environment.

 

References

Isaacson, W. (2013). Steve Jobs. New York: Simon & Schuster.

Taylor, J. (2013, January 14). Blockbuster – How blind spots led to failure. Retrieved November 23, 2013, from Prezi.com: http://prezi.com/vb7msogfankm/blockbuster-how-blindspots-led-to-failure/

 

 

 

Management of football clubs: Should managers be sacked for poor performance of a club on the pitch?

 

Why Football Club Managers Should Not Be Sacked Due To Short Term Poor Performance on the Field

Football club managers should not be sacked because of a club’s poor performance on the pitch. This is because there are several factors that affect the performance of a team on the pitch which might not be necessarily linked to the managers. First and foremost, previous studies indicate that hiring a new coach does not automatically improve the performance a football club that has had a history of poor performance (Markham 2012). In other words, hiring a new coach can produce contrasting results with regard to a football team’s performance in the field which might either meet or fail to meet the stakeholders’ expectations (Markham, 2012). Out of previous nine studies carried out in six countries, five of such studies showed that sacking a manager who performs poorly in the field and replacing him with a new coach may improve a football club’s performance in the field to a greater extent (Markham, 2012). Perhaps such concept explains why most clubs in the English premier league usually change coaches when their teams face relegation. However, the research from Netherlands, Belgium, Italy, and Germany found that sacking a manager who performs poorly in the field and replacing him/her with a new manager do not often improve a club’s on field performance.

A manager’s performance should be analyzed based on the internal and external factors that directly influence such manager’s performance. Unfortunately, most football clubs do not often take into account the factors that have either positive or negative implications on a football manager’s performance. For instance, most analysts do not usually consider the fact that the level of unity and understanding among players may directly influence a football club’s performance in the field. Sometimes, football managers may not be in a position to comprehensively understand and solve misunderstanding between players. In such cases, it would be prudent to take into account the possible contribution of such misunderstanding on the overall performance of the club in the field. Sometimes, clubs employ wrong methods to rate the performance of manager on the pitch. Unfortunately, football managers usually face uncertainty regarding the players’ performance on the pitch (Soderman, 2013). According to Thompson and Martin (2010), the best way to evaluate a football club’s performance is to appraise the club’s standards based on the perception and opinion of a neutral professional analyst. For instance, Fizel (2006) notes that football clubs should always include aspects such as the manager’s age, management experience at the club, and the characteristics of the player to gauge the actual performance of the manager. Nonetheless, it is possible that managers may sometimes contribute to a club’s poor performance on the field by selecting the wrong team, alienating the media and the team’s supporters, failing to take advice from other member of the staff for the club, and accepting too much advise from third parties (Nesti, 2010). However, this does not necessarily imply that all managers undergo the same experiences and should be judged on these bases not unless it is proved otherwise by a neutral or independent analyst.

Most football clubs do not often consider the overall expectation of the fans, football administration, and the players when one is analyzing the overall on field performance of a football club manager. For instance, a manager who has been given enough money to buy high quality players should be gauged based on whether the manager’s new signings have brought significant improvement in the overall on field performance of the clubs. This is because football club managers are usually expected to possess relevant analytical skills that would enable them select and assign appropriate and viable players to bridge or fill the previous gap. In other words, a football manager’s performance depends on the ability of such manager to understand the kind of players that can fit in teams and the financial valuation of such players. In this regard, a manager who has not been given enough money to purchase the players of his/her taste should not be appraised in the same manner in which the one who had adequate resources to select and assign the right players into the club during the open-window transfer or signing period. According to Markham (2012), managers’ on field performance is usually affected by several factors that are beyond his/her control. Such factors include total player wage bill, net transfer expenditure, player injuries, suspension, and other factors that may make a player unavailable in the pitch.

Moreover, the appraisal of a manager’s performance on the field should be done on the club’s performance vis-à-vis the performance of other clubs in the same league. For instance, a manager of a club that has just been promoted from relegation cannot be evaluated on the same manner as the manager of a club which finished in position one in the previous season. In some cases, sacking a manager may bring negative implication on the overall performance of a football club. In most cases, a football club will incur significant financial costs to hire a new manager. Moreover, new managers usually spend a significant amount of time to adapt to the environment and expectations of a new football club. Unfortunately, a football club is likely to record poor performance during the grace period when the manager is adapting to the club. According to Armulf (2012), excessive focus on the individual manager may interfere with the long performance. More specifically, changing a manager when a club is in crisis can improve the club’s fortunes in the short run (Barnes, 2013). However, such move often causes long term instability in the club’s performance. In some cases, changing a manager may not improve the results of a club that is performing poorly. For instance, “after releasing Villas Boaz in March 2012, the performance of Chelsea did not improve” (Barnes, 2012, p.1). This example justifies the fact that a short term decline in the club’s performance should not encourage a club to fire its manager.

In most cases, football clubs that hire new managers tend to record a positive upward trend in performance immediately a new manager is hired. Nonetheless, research show that a team that is undergoing a crisis usually records such ‘come back’ even if the club maintains its manger (Barnes, 2013). According to Barnes (2013), football clubs operates more or less the same manner like any other business enterprises. That is, the type of industry that a business firm belongs and the period that a firm has conducted its business usually contribute significantly to the overall success of the business enterprise. In this regard, “the things that are set in stone at a club like Manchester United” that is regarded to possess great stadium, tradition, and other facilities are supposed to contribute to the success of the club (Barnes, 2013, p.1). Barnes (2013) asserts that a football club’s success on the pitch depends on other factors other than the manager’s leadership effectiveness at the club. Nesti (2010) argues that sacking of football managers due to poor performance may sometimes exert unnecessary pressure on a football manager to impress the owners and fans of a club. In most cases, “a manager can go from being celebrated to being castigated within a short period of time” (Nest, 2010, p. 98). This is regardless of the fact that poor results on the pitch may be caused by poor decisions by match officials and the absence of key players on the pitch due to certain unavoidable circumstances such as injuries.

However, some people argue that football management should be analyzed based on Pierce’s leadership process and the trapdoor models. According to the ‘trapdoor’ model that was developed by Dr. Chris Hope of the judge business School, Cambridge University, clubs should set a minimum threshold of average minimum points a manager achieves per game to gauge the performance of the football club managers (Northouse, 2010). Based on the model, managers who do not meet the average standards set per game would be unfit to lead the club. On then other hand, according to the pierce’s leadership model, leaders are expected to guide, direct, and motivate other people to do the right thing (Northouse, 2010). The pierce’s model expects leaders to be at the center of every decision making process in the organization. The model further expects leaders to take responsibility for their management decisions. Based on such argument, football managers are expected to train, advice, and guide their players to deliver victory at all costs (Northouse, 2010). The pierce model assumes that football managers should comprehensively understand the club’s football and business environment before they make important management decisions. Northouse (2010) argues that the Pierce model attach the success of a football pitch on the manager’s ability to motivate the players, to select the bets captain, administer the appropriate training, and to develop the right mindset among the players.

Normally, the leadership process model holds that managers should learn to identify hiccups on time, fix such hiccups, and give appropriate feedback to his/her followers and the stakeholders as appropriate (Northouse, 2010). In the case of football clubs, managers are expected to identify mistakes, including possible emotional instability and disagreement between players in order to solve such problems on time. This would particularly prevent such issues from affecting the performance of the club on pitch. The model further suggests that football managers should be able to solve all the existing conflicts and disagreements between players in a way that may enable the club to achieve success on the pitch (Lang, 2011). Unfortunately, some football managers may not have the professional and psychological capability to solve conflicts. At the same time, the idea that managers ought to take responsibility for the club’s performance on the pitch does not take into account the inefficiencies that may be caused by a player sickness, injury, suspension, or any other factors that may negatively affect the overall performance of a team.

In conclusion, clubs should always take into account all the external and internal factors when appraising the performance of managers. Based on such fact, clubs should not back managers because of short term poor performance of a club on the pitch. On the contrary, football club managers should be assessed based on their long term performance and contribution to the clubs. This is particularly based on the fact that the overall performance of a club is dependent on other factors that might be beyond or out of the manager’s jurisdiction.

References

Armulf, JK, Mathisen, JE & Haerem, T 2012, ‘Heroic leadership illusions in football teams: Rationality, decision making and noise – signal ratio in the firing of football managers,’ Leadership, vol. 8, 169-185.

Barnes, H 2013, Does it make statistical sense to sack a football manager? Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-23724517

Fizel, J 2006, Handbook of sports economics research. Armonk, N.Y., M.E. Sharpe

Lang, M 2011, Transformational leadership: Fundamentals-models-Differences-Impact on employees, GRIN Verlag, Munich.

Mallinger, P 2008, So you think you want to be a director of a football club: A view from inside the Boardrooms at Newcastle United and Kettering town, AuthorHouse, Bloomington.

Markham, T 2012, ‘the sacking of football managers as an exact science: who got it right and wrong,’ SportingIntelligence, 23 April, p.1.

Nesti, M 2010, Psychology in football: working with elite and professional players, Routledge, New York.

Northouse, P G 2010, Leadership: theory and practice, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks.

Soderman, S 2013, Football and management comparisons between sport and enterprise, Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan.

Thompson, JL & Martin, F 2010, Strategic management, Cengage Learning, Andover.

Short Report on African Person

Kofi Annan

Kofi Annan is a Ghanaian diplomat born in April 8^th 1938. Annan was born in Comassie, Gold Coast which is now known as Kumasi in Ghana. Annan is a well known African person having served at the United Nations Seventh Secretary General; he served as at January 1^st 1997 to December 31^st 2006. Surveys have indicated that the United Nations and Annan were the Nobel Peace Prize 2001 co-recipients. They were recognized for spearheading a peaceful and an organized world. Annan has also served at the United Nations Arab league Joint Special Representative for Syria from February 23^rd 2012 to August 31^st 2012; Annan was influential in finding a peaceful resolution basing on the conflicts that were ongoing in the region. Annan was born in an elite family; some of the family members were influential in the society.

It was noted that Annan quit the United Nations after he got frustrated by the inability of the organization to progress agendas put forward in offering conflict resolutions in the affected regions. Annan argued that the Security Council in Syria was not ready to act; it was instead name-calling and finger-pointing other parties hence complicating the already volatile situation. The deputies of Annan at the United Nations were Mark Moloch Brown and Louise Frenchette. He was succeeded by Ban Ki-moon and preceded by Boutros Boutros-Ghali. Annan at United Nations and Arab League Envoy to Syria was succeeded by Lakhdar Brahimi; the Secretary General was Ban Ki-Moon and Nabil Elaraby. Annan was married to the late Titi Alakija from 1965 and passed away in 1970s. Annan later got married to Nane Lagergren in 1984 till present.

Annan has been an influential African personality both in Africa and in the world. It has been noted that in the early years. Annan worked as a Budget Officer at the World Health Organization, which relates to the United Nations. Annan has also worked as the Ghanaian Director of Tourism, Rwandan Genocide United Nations Peacekeeping Operations, Under-Secretary General at the United Nations and Yugoslavia’s Special Representative of the Secretary General among others.

Annan has been involved in a number of scandals namely: investigations of Lubbers sexual harassment and the scandal relating to oil for food. Annan’s farewell focused on a number of issues, the farewell was held in New York at the United Nations Headquarters on September 19^th 2006. Annan’s speech focused on three major challenges facing the world identifying with world disorder, world economy that is unjust and on widespread contempt for the rule of law and human rights. Annan had the belief that he did not solve the sensitive issues; some of the issues in consideration were conflicts at the Arab-Israeli and the violence in African nations.

Annan indicated that the responsibility of the great states of the United States was to serve the world and not dominating the world as it has been observed in the current global environment, he supported the moves done by the United States in eliminating terrorism in the world. Annan has received diverse global Honors, Awards and Honorary degrees. The Kofi Annan foundation has been influential in peace reconciliations in the world.

In conclusion, Kofi Annan has been considered as an influential global leader, with diverse traits of a good leader. He is considered as a transformational leader and also a charismatic leader. Annan’s leadership has been refined by circumstances mainly in the United Nations, with an experience of more than thirty years.