Author: chris

Christian World and Life View

 

Outline

Outline—————————————————————————————————–1

World and life view definition————————————————————————–2

The three key questions that provide the basics of a world view———————————–3

Importance of discerning and understanding world views——————————————4

Christian answers to the three key world view questions ——————————————-5

The three answers and values in the Christian world view——————————————6

Validity of the Christian world and life view———————————————————7

Other world and life views are current in our culture————————————————8

The Christian world and life view approach to particular issues———————————–9

Other current world and life view approach to particular issues————————————9

Conclusion————————————————————————————————10

References————————————————————————————————11

 

  

World and life view definition

A world and life view is the term used to describe the different ways in which people perceive life in its entirety. It is perception with a global dimension that allows one to scrutinize each aspect of life. It also viewed as one that consists of different beliefs and attitudes that form the basis upon which people engage in different actions. It is the general outlook and attitudes of all people in the world (Wilkens, 2009). All people in the world have a worldview and different worldviews create diversity as a way of indicating the distinctiveness of ones definition of life.

Diversity in the way people interact in different parts of the world reflects their deep-seated worldview. It informs their perspective on different aspects of life and influences social factors, economy, religion, and politics among others. This explains why people subscribe to different approaches in solving global problems such as hunger and poverty. Based on their worldviews, they may opt for economic stimulus packages or foreign aid and grants to assist poverty and hunger stricken countries out of the menace. The basis of these decisions is attitudes and beliefs that particular people have concerning the problems of poverty and hunger, which is their worldview.

One’s worldview determines one’s approach to aspects such as education, marriage, leisure, pursuit of talents and gifts (Shand, 2003). People with different worldviews have different perceptions about similar things. For instance, an entrepreneur, a child, an artist may be looking at a fruit on the table but their worldviews determine what they think about it. A child may view the fruit as part of a delicious breakfast, an entrepreneur’s thoughts may explore on how to start a fruits business while an artist may think of a drawing or painting with a fruits theme.

This indicates that it is extremely important for people in leadership positions in different aspects of life such as businesses, non-governmental organizations, churches, schools, and community organization to strive to clearly establish their worldview. This is because the people that get into contact with these entities require understanding their worldview to inform their mode of interactions with them. For instance, it is important for members of a particular church to understand the worldviews of the church for them to align their conduct with the church’s worldview. This creates consistency for outsiders considering joining the church because of the beliefs and attitudes embodied in the church. Individuals alike require engaging in personal reflection and identifying personal worldviews that guide their behavior in their interactions with one another in a consistent fashion.

 The three key questions that provide the basics of a world view

Both non-Christian and Christian worldviews explore three pertinent questions. One of the questions is about the origin of life and identity. It asks about the genesis of human life and who people are. The second question seeks to determine the things that are not working in life by asking about what is wrong in the world. The third question focuses on what role people have in remedying what goes wrong in the world. People identify things that go wrong in the world differently. For example when people of different cultures and world views disagree on different issues, the real essence is that it is a competition between their secular and spiritual worldviews (Colson & Pearcey, 1999).

Before one forms a worldview, it is important to engage in some reflection on the genesis of life. It is important because it allows the person to interact with God for those that pay allegiance to a divine maker. This provides a platform for the divine maker to shed light on what everyone was created to do which answers the question of who the person is. A person is able to also answer the question about what is wrong depending on the purpose that one establishes in the first question. One is able to identify sins, and other social problems that people have brought upon themselves. Identification of the problems indicates that people require taking responsibilities depending on their personal niche or purpose in life. These questions guide one’s life towards fulfilling their purpose in conformity their worldview.

Importance of discerning and understanding worldviews

Understanding other peoples and one’s personal worldviews is important for various reasons. One of the reasons is that enables one to stand firm in the face of contradicting worldviews. One is able to identify the inspiration behind others point of views regarding different issues and keeps one from being swayed into taking stands that are not consistent with one’s personal conviction. It is also important to understand people’s worldviews because they determine the type of decisions one makes or ought to make (Bulhof, 1980). When one understands a person’s worldview opinions and claims become clear. One is able to categorically understand what types of opinions certain people are likely to hold and they attain a level of clarity. This understanding also creates the avenue for effective communication between people with different worldviews. It clears potential confusion because truth is not mixed with falsehood. This understanding is necessary to ensure that people make rational decisions that are based on pure truth (Derengonwski, 2009).

Understanding and discerning worldviews are also important because it affords one the opportunity to impact others. It allows one to understand how other people are different and how to effectively interact with them without inherently held misguided notions and unrealistic expectations. This understanding allows one to know how personal world views influence reactions and responses to people with similar or dissimilar worldviews and to also understand how people with dissimilar worldviews perceive others. It also allows one to strategically determine their position as part of a diverse society. Understanding and discerning world views is also important because it enables one to maneuver through different world views in dealing with people from different cultures. It enables people to meet their need of orienting ones intellectual paths (Solomon, 1994).

 

Christian answers to the three key questions that form the basis for every world and life view

One of the Christian answers to the three questions that are central to every worldview is found in Genesis 1:27-28 and Genesis 2:15 indicating that people originated from God. God created man and bestowed authority on man to subdue the world and to commune with Him (Dockery, 2012). He gave man from dust and then extracted a rib from man to create the woman to serve as a helper to the man. Man was given the opportunity to enjoy from God’s creation and to exercise moral restraint (Dockrey & Thonbury, 2002). God created all there is in the universe and He indicated that all that he created was inherently good. He created human beings in his resemblance and assigned him the role of ruling over the earth, procreation and to fellowship and to glorify God in everything that one does (Twit, 1974).

The answer to the second question is that man brought a curse on the earth because of disobedience as indicates in the fall of man in Genesis chapter three. Man was unable to practice moral restraint in his interaction with God’s creation and sinned which indicates that what went wrong is man’s sinful nature (Peterson, 2003). The consequences of sin are reflected in the imperfect world in which man lives and it is not what God had planned. Christians must recognize the fact that sin has detrimental consequences and acknowledge that man is weak and vulnerable to deception. This realization ought to draw man towards depending on God for guidance to solve the wrongs in the world. It also connotes that people require refraining from seeking direction from education or structures in the political realms as their solutions to the imminent problems is insufficient. Rather, Christians ought to depend on God to let his kingdom traverse all spheres of life (Twit, 1974).

The answer to the third question on what man can do, as a solution to the fall of man is that God has the power to bring back the world to its original state and it is partly accomplished through Jesus Christ who redeems people from a sinful and destructive life. Christians ought to continuously engage in activities that bring others to repentance and live moral lives as a way of remedying what went wrong (Kennedy, 2005).The death and resurrection of Jesus established His power to rule over the earth through the holy spirit. Jesus’ redemptive power is at work on the earth to fight against the advancement of hell. His rule over the earth is manifested through people’s submission to his rule through changed lifestyles that are controlled by his holy spirit, which informs their worldview. To change what went wrong, people’s lives are carefully held in God’s hands (Joiner, 2005).

How those three answers lead to particular positions or values in the Christian worldview

The answers to the three questions influence a Christian’s daily decisions. For instance the Christians derive their position against abortion from the realization of the innate worth and dignity of human life which is God’s creation. They also take a strong stance against euthanasia because they recognize that God is the only one with the power and the discretion to take the life that He creates. The question on the sinful nature of man lingers on Christian’s position on forgiveness because they realize that man is susceptible to sin (Joiner, 2005).

Christian teachings indicate that there is no man that is without sin and that people ought to forgive each other infinite times. This recognition that man is evil and prone to sin allows Christians to strive to forgive others when they sin against them. The third answer forms the basis on which Christians engage in activities that seek to draw more people to repent. This is because they realize that the kingdom of God seeks to extend its reach to as many people as possible. They strive to convince people from actions that are deemed sinful such as abortion and homosexual habits among others as a way of reuniting sinners with God through Jesus’ resurrection power. In essence, the answers to the three questions defends Christians position on seeking to let God’s glory shine over all the earth as a way ensuring that they gain life on earth and in eternity (Joiner, 2005).

How valid is the Christian world and life view and how would it be defended

A Christian worldview is anchored on the Bible, which Christians consider as the foolproof God’s word. Christians make the Bible their reference point for life decisions and everything that they do (Davis, 2009). The Christian worldview is validated through numerous ways including miracles, the actual testament of Jesus life, death and resurrection as documented in history. The scripture in 1Corinthians 15 documents that Christ died and rose and Christian world and life view is anchored on the recognition of his resurrection (Morey, 1980). Historical critics argue that history is only based on the historian interpretations of an event making it impossible to know the truth about historical events. To defend the Christian world and life view, one could argue that a historian’s personal opinions do not necessarily alter truths about the occurrence of the actual event. It can also be argued that people are naturally skilled in identifying bias in addition to providing physical evidence of the interpreted past events (Milne, 1995).

God created the universe in six days indicating that creation is finite and one can observe that creation is not a continuous process. Scientists however came up with the big bang theory that indicated that the universe came to be through a self-perpetuating way but mathematicians have undertaken research to show the weaknesses of this worldview (Gentry, 1997). They indicate that for the world to produce life it requires infinite time indicating that there is insufficient time for the process to take place. It is also imperative to note that scientist have been unable to create DNA. Theologically, one can defend the Christian world and life view as valid because of the transforming power and the manifestation of the Holy Spirit. This spirit enabled people to endure persecution for the sake of spreading the gospel and it is evident even in the present day (Milne, 1995).

Other world and life views are current in our culture, their answers to the three questions and how their answers lead to their perspectives on other issues

One of the other life and worldviews in the contemporary world is naturalism. The worldview answers the question on creation is that it occurs through a natural process and life goes through inevitable changes as illustrated using the big bang theory. This is contrast with the Christian belief in supernatural creation. On what is wrong is that people are competitive in nature and they strive to secure their niche in self-centeredness. To solve the problem people engage in learning activities to gain skill and knowledge on how to utilize their full potential and survive in the universe. Naturalism influences people’s perception on issues such as governance and affirmative action, which advocates for allowing more women to serve in political positions of particular countries. The worldview informs their position against affirmative action indicating that women require exerting effort equal to men to acquire political positions and not rely on affirmative action to place them at privileged positions to secure political posts. The worldview advocates for rewards that are based on merit.

Buddhism is another worldview whose answer to the first question indicates that there is no distinct creator. The worldview also indicates that life in the world is temporary and people just pass through the universe. This indicates that their worldview on accomplishments is not important and that they value life less than other life and worldviews such as Christians (Morey, A Christian Student’s Survival Guide, 2010). The answer to the question on what is wrong is that there is insurmountable suffering on the universe that emanates from peoples desires. The answer to the question on how to solve the problem is that people require ridding themselves of cravings and deep seated desires that cause suffering such as sexual desire (Wallace, 2012). Buddhism life and worldview encourages people to take responsibility for their actions. It indicates that people require relieving their suffering through taking measures that prevent the occurrence of suffering. For example, Buddhists may blame hungry African countries for being lazy and unproductive thus leading to hunger problems. It may necessitate the condemnation of donor aid and food aid as the wrong solution to hunger in Africa and other parts of the world.

How the Christian world and life view approach a particular issue based on the on its answers to the three questions of every world view

The Christian world and life view on the issue of pornography provides an answer to the question about people’s origin and why they exist. The answer is that those that participate in this filming are created by God in his resemblance. It is also worth noting that their bodies are temples where his spirit should dwell and not evil spirits of moral decadence. The Christian world and life view would indicate that porn stars are sinning and that they should remedy their situation through repentance and acceptance of Jesus Christ’s redemption and salvation. Upon attaining salvation, the porn stars ought to commit to a life of worship and fellowship with God the creator.

How other current world and life view approach the same issue

A Buddhist world and life view would approach the issue of pornography as an activity that would cause suffering to the porn stars. This is because the worldview outlines that people bring suffering upon themselves through illicit activities. It would also not take a very strong condemning stance on the activity because Buddhists believe that they are travelling through life and life ends at death. This worldview would tolerate people making choices to engage in pornography because there are no rules as to how one lives. Buddhists are not accountable to particular gods because they have no absolute creator.

A naturalist world and life view does not uphold dignity of life and would tolerate people engaging in pornography even though it may be seen as demeaning to people with a feminist worldview that seeks to protect women’s image. The worldview has no allegiance to a supernatural creator and thus is not obliged to be consistent with expectations of any particular deity. Naturalism also promotes competition against each other to survive and would tolerate pornography as a viable way of acquiring an income for one’s daily sustenance. This is particularly true in the current economic times where employment opportunities are scarce.

Conclusion

Indeed, there are different types of worldviews that influence how people interact with each other in the society. Worldviews seek answers to three common questions that concern origin, identity, problem detection and providing a solution. Recognizing worldviews is important as it allows one to communicate with clarity and to maintain a strong stance in consistency with one’s worldview. The Christian world and life view provides direction for Christians as they pursue the overarching goal of redemption and pulling people towards salvation and holy lifestyles. A Christian worldview enables a Christian to stand firm against other world and life views such as naturalism and Buddhism, which have contradiction perceptions on different issues such as pornography and euthanasia among others. Christians all over the world strive to transform the lives of others and to steer them away from sinful lives. They also engage in charity work to assist people in the most remote places in the world and spread the Gospel as they offer compassion. In the age of global interconnectedness, preachers are able to spread the gospel with much ease and to draw people towards salvation and obedience to God, which is the central Christian worldview.

References

Bulhof, I. (1980). wilhem Dilthey: A Hermeneutic Approach to the Study of History and Culture. New York: Springer.

Colson, C., & Pearcey, N. (1999, September 1). How Now Shall We Live. Retrieved January 14, 2014, from Center for Science and Culture: http://www.discovery.org/a/3569

Davis, F. (2009). What is So Important About Understanding WorldView. Retrieved January 14, 2014, from Market Faith Ministries: http://www.marketfaith.org/what-is-so-important-about-understanding-worldview/

Derengonwski, P. (2009). Understanding the Importance of World Views. Retrieved January 14, 2014, from Christian Aplogetics Project: http://capro.info/Apologetics/Understanding_the_Importance_of_Worldviews.html

Dockery, D. S. (2012). Shaping a Christian Worldview: An Introduction (Part I). Retrieved January 14, 2014, from Union University: http://www.uu.edu/centers/faculty/resources/article.cfm?ArticleID=364

Dockrey, D. S., & Thonbury, G. A. (2002). Shaping a Christian Worldview: The Foundations of Christian Higher Education. Nashville, TN: B&H Publishing Group.

Gentry, K. L. (1997). Let God Be True: A Brief Defense of the Christian Faith. Retrieved January 14, 2014, from Covenant Media Foundation: http://www.cmfnow.com/articles/pa500.htm

Joiner, P. (2005). How to Have a Biblical World View. RUF Campus Minister, 1-4.

Kennedy, D. J. (2005). Lord of All: Developing a Christian World-and-Life View. Wheaton, IL: CrossWay.

Milne, R. (1995). Defending the Faith: Christian Apolgetics in a Non-Christian World. Retrieved January 14, 2014, from The 1995 Evangelical Theological society Annual Meeting: http://www.leaderu.com/orgs/probe/docs/ets-mtg.html

Morey, R. A. (1980). A Christian Handbook For Defending the Faith. Phillips-burg, NJ.: Presbyterian and Reformed Publ. Co.

Morey, R. A. (2010). A Christian Student’s Survival Guide. Maitland, FL: Xulon Press.

Peterson, G. R. (2003). Minding God: Theology and the Cognitive Sciences. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press.

Shand, M. (2003, January). World And Life View Paper. The Evangelical Presbytarian, 1-5.

Solomon, J. (1994). World Views. Retrieved January 14, 2014, from Probe Ministries: http://www.leaderu.com/orgs/probe/docs/w-views.html

Twit, K. (1974). A Biblical World and Life Review. Westminister Theological Journal, 37, 57-73.

Wallace, J. W. (2012). Could Buddhism Be True? Retrieved January 14, 2014, from Please Convince Me: http://pleaseconvinceme.com/2012/could-buddhism-be-true/

Wilkens, S. (2009). Hidden Worldviews: Eight Cultural Stories That Shape Our Lives. Westmont, IL: InterVarsity Press.

 

 

Core Skills & Methods for International Relations:

The Battle for Control of Political Science Education.

The study of politics requires in length a detailed philosophical argument that validates its hard scientific approach.  Quantitative scrutiny, recognized modeling and other outlines of hard science dictate the principal journals and research institutions of the America political science (Michal 2010). Hence in particular the battle for control of political science education requires answers to three significant questions. What is the general character of political life? What and how can we understand from politics? What is the main aim of political science? Research has shown that fewer scientists in today’s world offer complicated solutions to these questions since one of their domination in the restraint has been the expulsion of the political attitude to the restrictions of the course. Indeed, it has been noted that the political attitude is the most notable fatality of today’s standard discipline (Mills 1998).

Most individuals view the conflict in America’s political realm as much more than a scuffle over the occupational resources. It is viewed as a scuffle between who gets hired, who heads the professional associations and who gets published (Ziegler 1996).  Analysts state that the conflict is just but a mere battle over limited resources, though the protestors have deeply presented a significant assessment of stiff science as a way to study politics. Scientists attached to the hard science have met this assessment with deep silence. It should be noted that the dispute will not vanish with an additional impartial distribution of the work-related rewards. This should be taken as a substantive challenge that needs a solution.

It should be absolutely clear that the focus of the argument is the general definition of the word science as it is applied to the study of human individuals (Michael & Eric 2010). Currently the protest movement is not anti-scientific especially like the way some of the supporters of the hard science organization have generally assumed and attempted to stigmatize it. It is thus clear that science has always been a disputed perception, even in the sphere of the substantial sciences and remains so even today. Hence most of the protesters who are associated with perestroika always consider themselves as scientists. It is thus through the perestroika assessment where three questions are connected to the attaining of the science in the learning of politics (James 2000).

The first question is the assessment of the general character of political life. It should be quite clear whether politics show the soaring extent of reliability and promptness required by the hard science, or does complexity, choice and accident deliberately frontier its regularities? Analysts and researchers tend to find a political science that can duly be compared in breadth and precision to the natural sciences, hence it should be clearly understood whether the quality of the politics differ precisely or resemble automatically from the character of physical temperament.

The second point that has been critically analyzed and looked at upon is how and what can we generally understand about politics.  With thorough and keen evaluation of the political life, it is crucial to understand what sort of knowledge is significant about it. The world should really understand that the character of politics provide itself to the equilibrium of strict hypothesis. It should be again understood whether most of the significant features of politics are certainly and meaningfully convertible into numbers. Furthermore an extensive consideration as to what extent can any political scholar surpass their individual welfare and position in history and society to generally offer an inclusive, objective and hence scientific account of the whole social world is significant (Mills 1998).

Finally, a deep understanding and keen evaluation of the exact purpose that political knowledge should serve is quite essential and needed. It should be clear enough what good follows from the study of politics for both the professionals and scholars at large. The world and political lovers should deeply acknowledge what ends should extensively guide their day to day activities. A proper dimension by analysts should be subjected to scholars and political lovers as to how they might incorporate political study on the perfunctory features of politics with the analysis about its appropriate ends.

According to C. Wright Mills (1998), a long time ago the philosophers of social science arraigned that they had acquired a set of quality influential solutions to the significant queries, but eventually these have proved to be untenable. Hence in response, most of the social science practitioners other than reviving the way they conduct their research, they have subsequently dropped these queries from the main curriculum and despised the reasoning of understanding politics and the science behind it.

Conclusion:

The analysis about the control of political science education precisely falls on what is out there, what generally can we learn from it and why should we really want to engage in it? Hard science basically falls under this questionable analysis. The solutions that befall the analysis and research are complicated and thus nobody should participate in the political profession without addressing these queries in general.

 

 

Works cited:

Adam, L. (2011) Creationism in Historical Perspective. New York: Cambridge University Press.

MICHAEL, B. & ERIC, P. (2010) Evolution, Creationism, and the Battle to Control America’s Classrooms. New York: Cambridge University Press.

ZIEGLER, D. (1996). War, Peace, And International Politics . Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman & Co; 7th edition.

Lipsky, M.  (1980)  Street-Level Bureaucracy:  Dilemmas of the Individual in Public Service.  New York:  Russell Sage Foundation.

Wadsworth, Nancy D.  (2008)  “Reconciling Fractures:  The Intersection of Race and Religion in United States Political Development,” in Joseph Lowndes, Julie Novkov, and Dorian T. Warren, eds., Race and American Political Development.  New York: Routledge.

Michal, P. (2010) Political Science. New York: Cambridge University Press.

James, D. (2000) Funding Science in America. New York: Cambridge University Press.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Cost-effectiveness of active transport for primary school Children – Walking School Bus program

Critical appraisal

`                       This article contains a study that was carried out to determine the cost effectiveness of active transport for primary school children program which was used as a prevention measure for obesity among school going children (Kelly et al, 2005). This study is carried out in order to determine whether the program is effective to this specific population or not and whether the program is cost effective. The Walking School Bus (WSB) program was conducted among the school going children in Australia. This program was designed as part of the ACE-Obesity study so that it could help in giving results to the study through the use of the program. This study involved the use of consistent methods and thirteen interventions that were aimed at preventing and reducing obesity among Australian children and adolescents (Kelly et al, 2005).

In this particular study, the target population is clearly stated and the study focuses on this population in the right setting. This is appropriate for the facilitating proper implementation of the program and thus providing the right results (Ogilvie et al, 2011). This helped in knowing whether the program was effective or not based on the outcomes. The competing alternatives in this study are clearly stated in that the program (WSB) is implemented to show the benefits of active physical activity in young children and adolescents as compared to inactivity (Ogilvie et al, 2011). This program provides results that show whether physical activity can reduce and prevent obesity in school going children. This program was aimed at bringing other health benefits in addition to the reduction in obesity. These health benefits include mental health, safety and improving and protecting the environment for both the participating children and the society at large. The research question for this study is well stated in that it is answerable during the study and even after the study (Ogilvie et al, 2011). After getting the results of the study, the researchers are able to determine whether the research question has been answered therefore being able to determine whether the study was effective or not. The research question is what guided the study in both the implementation of the program and also in determining the cost effectiveness of the program (Ogilvie et al, 2011).

The economical study design is not appropriate to the stated objective because the cost effectiveness of the program in relation to the economic status is not emphasized (Coast, Smith, & Lorgelly, 2008). This is one of the factors that made the study not to be effective because in as much as the program helped in reducing and preventing obesity among school going children, it did not reach a wide the WSB program managed to reach a total of 7,840 children between 5 to 7 years at a cost of $AUD22.8M. This number of children involved in the walking program did not increase and this limited the sustainability of the program (Coast, Smith, & Lorgelly, 2008). This cost was also high for the program to be effective and sustainable without any increase in the numbers of school going children involved. The cost benefits were amounted to 3% and this shows that the economic study design could not lead to the achievement of the stated objective (Chalkidou et al, 2008). The time horizon set for this study is not realistic to include relevant costs and consequences. This is because it would be impossible to determine the long term costs and consequences of a program before carrying out a short term analysis of the costs and consequences of the same program (Coast, Smith, & Lorgelly, 2008). The life time or 100 years period of time that was used to determine the consequences of the program and calculate the costs could not work on a program that was being implemented for the first time. This is one of the reasons as to why the program did not succeed because the program could have been analyzed on a short term basis at first so that the researchers can get the chance to improve on the factors that came up as challenges to implementation (Chalkidou et al, 2008). Calculating the costs and analyzing the consequences of the program on a sort term basis helps in predicting the sustainability of a program and giving a chance to improve on the recommendations for the implementation of the program (Barendregt, 2006).

Why it was difficult to design and conduct an economic evaluation of this study to measure and value the health outcomes of the intervention

The actual perspective chosen for this study was appropriate but the plans for implementation were not focused on broader issued that surrounded the issue of cost effectiveness and resource allocation (Barendregt, 2006). Therefore, this study was not as effective as it was intended to be. Conducting an economic evaluation of this study to determine the health benefits of the program was difficult because of the unavailability of data that linked the changes in BMI of the participating children during the active period and the period when they were not active. As a result of this, this study used other existing data about the BMI of the participants to predict the changes that were likely to have occurred (Barendregt, 2006). Lack of the critical information and data in determining the health benefits that were as a result of the implementation of the program made it very difficult to come up with accurate results on how this program improve the health of the participants (Weatherly et al, 2009). The important and relevant costs for each alternative are identified but they are not measured and valued appropriately because there are very high uncertainty rates in the figures provided. The costs cutting measures in this study also did not work out because the fixed amounts of money allocated were not enough to make the obesity prevention cost effective.  Due to the lack of some data in this study, not all relevant outcomes for each alternative identified (Weatherly et al, 2009). This is because most of the results of the study are based on assumption other than on real information. In most of the cases, it is very difficult to determine the exact outcomes and only predictions are provided. The outcomes of the program implemented are not measured and valued appropriately because some of the information needed in doing this is not available and some of the available information is not 100% correct (Evers et al, 2005). Most of the outcomes are based on prediction. For example, the incremental costs effectiveness results are not reliable because there was no certainty on the range used on the number of days that the participating children walked per week (Evers et al, 2005).

An incremental analysis of costs and outcomes of alternatives is performed. The incremental costs that were linked to the intervention totaled up to $22.8M and this was an average of $2,900 per child every year and the child walking one day per week to school (Evers et al, 2005). The fixed costs for the program totaled up to 86% of the total amount for the entire program. The future costs and outcomes did not discount appropriately because of the high assumptions that were involved in the program. There was a high rate of ICER uncertainty and this was mainly because of the uncertainty in the number of active physical movements per week. Moreover, the number of active transport estimated was very low as compared to the assumptions. In the sensitivity tests results, allocating a section of the total cost of the prevention program to non-obesity objectives and annuitisation of fixed costs were the main variable considered in the cutting costs of the project (Nemet et al, 2005). However, these variables alone could not lead to cost effectiveness of the program. In order to ensured that cost cutting was carried out, improved capacity utilization measures were added the cost cutting measures to ensure that cost effectiveness was possible. Moreover, this was possible “only under the very optimistic scenario” (Nemet et al, 2005). This means that an increase in the number of children participating in the intervention program would lead to cost effectiveness of the program. Therefore, with the small numbers of children involved in the program, cost-effectiveness was not possible even when strong cost-cutting measures are put into place. The sensitivity analysis provides results based on the variables used and also reflects the uncertain values and the results that would be expected when either the two or the three variables are used (Nemet et al, 2005). Therefore, these results give a condition of optimism when cost effectiveness is possible for the intervention program (Evers et al, 2005).

In this study, the conclusions are drawn from the data reported. The conclusion shows the cost effectiveness of this study and compares it to the current economic situations (Kahn et al, 2002).  The intervention program is not cost effective in the fight against obesity but it can be effective if its economic credentials are revised and improved to more realistic ones. The implementation can also be improved to increase effectiveness. Therefore, this intervention program has a very high potential of reducing and preventing obesity but in order for it to achieve this, it needs to be restructured within current infrastructure conditions (Kahn et al, 2002).

The study does not provide generalizabilty of the results to other settings and patient/client groups because the settings may be different and the results may not be the same of the intervention program is restructured in another way (Bravata et al, 2007). Moreover, this intervention has not been approved as an obesity prevention initiative but as strategy that encourages behavior change mostly in schools promoting physical activity. The results may be different in different populations and settings different from the ones in this particular study. This article clearly indicates that there is no conflict of interest of the study (Bravata et al, 2007). This indication is of importance to the readers because they can tell that the information contained in the article if not affected in any way by competing interests of the authors and the funders. The ethical and distribution issues are discussed appropriately in the article thus guiding the leader on how it can be accessed and distributed (Bravata et al, 2007). The article is an open access and it is under unrestricted use and distribution. Reproduction of the article is allowed but the original work must be cited appropriately. The users of the article therefore, know how much freedom they have on the use of its contents (Bravata et al, 2007).

  

References

Barendregt, J. (2006) Economics and public health: an arranged marriage. European Journal of     Public Health. 17(2) p.124.

Bravata, D. M., Smith-Spangler, C., Sundaram, V., Gienger, A. L., Lin, N., Lewis, R., … & Sirard, J. R. (2007). Using pedometers to increase physical activity and improve health. JAMA: the journal of the American Medical Association, 298(19), 2296-2304.

Chalkidou, K., Culyer, A., Naidoo, B. and Littlejohns, P. (2008) Cost-effective public health guidance: asking questions from the decision-maker’s viewpoint. Health Economics. 17(3) pp. 441-448.

Coast, J. Smith, R. Lorgelly, P. (2008) Should the capability approach be applied in health economics? Health Economics, 17: 667-670.

Evers, S., de Vet, H., van Tulder, M. and Ament A. (2005) Criteria list for assessment of methodological quality of economic evaluations: Consensus on Health Economic Criteria, Maastricht University, International Journal of Technology Assessment in Health Care, 21:2 (2005), 240–245.

Kahn, E. B., Ramsey, L. T., Brownson, R. C., Heath, G. W., Howze, E. H., Powell, K. E., … & Corso, P. (2002). The effectiveness of interventions to increase physical activity: A systematic review1, 2 1The names and affiliations of the Task Force members are listed in the front of this supplement and at www. thecommunityguide. org. 2Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Peter A. Briss, MD, Community Guide Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 4770 Buford Highway, MS-K73, Atlanta, GA 30341. E-mail: PBriss@ cdc. gov. American journal of preventive medicine, 22(4), 73-107.

Kelly, M., McDaid, D., Ludbrook, A., Powell, J. (2005) Economic appraisal of public health interventions. [online] Health Development Agency. Available from: http://www.cawt.com/Site/11/Documents/Publications/Population%20Health/Economics%20of%20Health%20Improvement/Economic_appraisal_of_public_health_interventions.pdf

Nemet, D., Barkan, S., Epstein, Y., Friedland, O., Kowen, G., & Eliakim, A. (2005). Short-and long-term beneficial effects of a combined dietary–behavioral–physical activity intervention for the treatment of childhood obesity. Pediatrics, 115(4), e443-e449.

Ogilvie, D. Bull, F. Powell, J.E. Cooper, A. Mutrie, N. Preston, J. Rutter, H. (2011) An applied ecological framework for evaluating infrastructure to promote walking and cycling : the iConnect study. American Journal of Public Health. 101: 473-481.

Weatherly, H., Drummond, M., Claxton, K., Cookson, R., Ferguson, B., Godfrey, C., Rice, N., Sculpher, M. and Sowden, A. (2009) Methods for assessing the cost-effectiveness of public health interventions: key challenges and recommendations. Health Policy. 93(2-3) pp.85-92.

Business Law Assignment

1. Bart’s potential contractual liability to Poppy

Bart is not liable in relation to the painting displayed in the shop window. This is because the window display is merely an invitation to treat and not an offer. The difference between an offer and an invitation to treat was brought up in the case of Fisher v Bell [1961] 1 QB 394[1]. The shop owner made a display of a flick-knife in his window. The plaintiff charged him with an offense of offering a flicker-knife for sale contrary to the Restriction of Offensive Weapons Act 1959. The court held that the defendant had not committed any offense because the display of the flicker-knife in the window was not an offer but an invitation to treat.

A contract is made through offer and acceptance[2]. Where there is no acceptance to the offer, then there is no binding contract between the parties involved. An offer that is capable of becoming binding upon acceptance must be clear, definite, and final. An invitation to treat is a mere introduction to negotiation which may result into a contract[3]. Accordingly, an invitation to treat cannot be used as a ground for acceptance. In this case, Bart had had made an invitation to treat through the window display. Poppy saying that she would like to buy the painting is an offer. It is for Bart to accept the offer in order to make the contract binding. Thus, there is no ground for Poppy to sue Bart for breach of contract.

2. Lovely Lighting Ltd’s liability to Bart under the law of contract and tort.

Lovely Lighting Ltd is liable both under the law of contract and tort. The Sale of Goods Act imposes a duty on the seller to sell goods that are fit for their purpose[4]. These are implied conditions which cannot be waived by an exclusion clause. Section 18 stipulates that the seller should ensure that the goods meet the required standards of quality or fitness. The goods are also supposed to be durable for a realistic period of time in relation to the use to which they are ordinarily put. Bart expected the shop window lighting to be of good quality and fit for purpose. He also expected the lighting to last for a reasonable period of time. In this regard, Lovely Lighting Ltd was in breach of contract and Bart can repudiate the contract by returning the shop window lighting and claiming damages for the injury caused by the defective lighting.

The liability of Lovely Lighting Ltd in tort comes through negligence. Negligence has four elements: duty of care, breach of duty, causation, and damages[5]. There must be a legal duty to exercise reasonable care. The person obligated to exercise reasonable care must have breached the duty. The claimant must prove that the failure to exercise duty of care caused him injuries. Lastly, there must be physical harm in terms of actual damages. Bart qualifies to sue for negligence because Lovely Lighting Ltd had an implied duty to ensure that the shop window lighting could not cause harm to Bart. Lovely Lighting breached the duty by selling a defective lighting to Bart. The breach caused Bart bad burns on the face and the hands.

Lovely Lighting is likely to rely on the exclusionary clause as a defense both in contract and tort[6]. For an exclusionary clause to be enforceable, it must be incorporated. In addition, it must have covered the breach in question on its construction. Where the exclusion clause satisfies these requirements, the courts also determine whether the clause is affected by the Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977. Section 2 of the Unfair Contract Terms Act provides that there is no exclusion of liability with regard to personal injuries caused by negligence. The defendant can only escape liability where the exclusion clause satisfies the reasonableness test. In the circumstances of this case, Lovely Lighting Ltd may have satisfied the incorporation and construction requirements. However, the company is liable under the Unfair Contract Terms Act.

3. Dannii’s status as a worker and Bart’s potential liability to pay her national insurance and tax.

The general rule is that employers must operate PAYE on all earnings of their employees. National insurance contributions and income tax are deducted from renumeration made in any form including commissions[7]. Temporary, casual or part-time workers are also required to pay national insurance and income tax where the earnings reach a certain amount each year. An employee is any person working under a contract of employment, whether the contract was made through express or implied terms[8]. A person is an employee if he works under the control of another party. The employee should have been given the work to perform.

The law requires the employer to deduct national insurance and tax contributions from the wages[9]. The employer must also provide the employee with pay slips. It is an offense for an employer to pay employee cash in hand without deducting national insurance and tax contributions. Where an employee accepts money in such a manner, he risks losing his employment rights and benefits such as Jobseeker’s Allowance, sick pay and maternity or paternity leave. Furthermore, the employee may end up paying the tax and national insurance contributions on his own.

In this case, Dannii is Bart’s employee. There is a contract of employment between them and Bart is required to deduct income tax and national insurance contributions from Dannii’s commissions. Since Dannii had not reported Bart for tax evasion, he may have to pay the income tax and national contributions by himself.

 

 

References

Barnett, Daniel & Scrope Henry, Employment Law Handbook (Henry Scrope, 2009).

Burrows, A., Offer and Acceptance. A Casebook on Contract (Portland, OR, North America:                    Hart Publishing, 2009).

Charman Mary, Vanstone Bobby, and Sherratt Liz,  AS Law (Routledge, 2012).

Collins Hugh, Edwig Keith & McColgan, Aileen, Labour Law (Cambridge University Press,                    2012).

Deakin, S. Angus  & Basil, Michael, Markesinis and Deakin’s Tort Law (Oxford University                      Press, 2009)

James, Malcom, The UK Tax System: An Introduction (Spiramus Press Ltd, 2009).

Klar, L. & Rainaldi, L, Negligence (Carswell, 2010).

Newbolt Frank, The Sale of Goods Act -1893 – with notes (Read Books Design, 2010).

Stone, Richard, The Modern Law of Contract (Taylor & Francis, 2011).

Turner Chris & Turner Chris, Unlocking Contract Law (Routledge, 2013).

[1] Stone, Richard, The Modern Law of Contract (Taylor & Francis, 2011).

[2] Burrows, A., Offer and Acceptance. A Casebook on Contract (Portland, OR, North America: Hart Publishing, 2009)

[3] Charman, M., Vanstone, B., and Sherratt, L., AS Law (Routledge, 2012)

[4] Newbolt Frank, The Sale of Goods Act -1893 – with notes (Read Books Design, 2010).

[5] Klar, L. & Rainaldi, L. D., Negligence (Carswell, 2010).

[6] Deakin, S. Angus, J. & Basil, M., Markesinis and Deakin’s Tort Law (Oxford University Press, 2009)

[7] Barnett, Daniel & Scrope Henry, Employment Law Handbook (Henry Scrope, 2009).

[8] Turner Chris & Turner Chris, Unlocking Contract Law (Routledge, 2013).

[9] Collins Hugh, Edwig Keith & McColgan, Aileen, Labour Law (Cambridge University Press, 2012).

 

Short essay

Question 11

Perceptual constancy is the ability that aids people to make sense of the world.  It is also the ability to recognize that a given object is the same even if the objects produce different shapes or images on the retina (Myers 2002, p. 132).  Therefore, perceptual constancy enables people to recognize objects without being deceived by changes in size, shape and color.  Example is a case where a man watches his wife walk away. The image of the woman will shrink but it does not mean that the woman has changed in size in real sense.

Shape constancy is a situation where objects seem to have different shapes despite the fact that they make differently shaped retinal images depending on the angle of viewing (Myers 2002, p. 133).  An example is a door. People will often perceive the form of the door as constant even though it may appear smaller because it is familiar.

Size constancy occurs when objects of similar size seem to have different size depending on the increase or decrease of the distance.  People therefore perceive objects as having a constant size even though the distance from the object may vary (Myers 2002, p. 133).  For example, people will assume that a car is large enough to carry many people even though its image from a distance may appear smaller.

Color constancy refers to a situation where different wavelengths of light are reflected from objects under variety of lighting conditions. This case is caused by the ability of the eye to adapt to different light conditions and interpretation of color based on the colors of nearby objects. Therefore, the context of the objects plays a key role. An example is of color constancy is the differences that is observed when one views a tomato placed in a tube and another placed on a bowl (Myers, 2002, p. 133).  A tomato placed in a tube would seem to change with the variation of the light or wavelength reflected as opposed to the one placed on bowl as its color is going to remain constant even as the lighting shifts.

 

 

Reference

Myers, D. (2002). Psychology in Everyday Life. New York: Worth Publishers, Paperback, 2nd     edition,

 

 

Frankenstein

Different authors use different genre to convey their messages or thoughts to the audience. The choice of the genre depends on the author, the audience and the message that the author wants to pass on. This paper is an argument explaining the relationship of the novel, “Frankenstein’ to its genre and the impacts of the relationship.

“Frankenstein’ is a novel that belongs to the gothic genre and incorporates different genre conventions. Mary Shelley wrote the novel whose story line is set in Europe (Schor, 2003). The author uses various characters to convey her messages to the audience.  The novel major themes are the quest to explore and acquire knowledge something that the protagonists are determined but which at the end leads to their demise.  The author uses letters and story of the protagonist to convey the thoughts. One of the protagonists is Robert Walton who is determined to sail to the North Pole. He communicates with his sister in England through the letter on the progress of his journey (O’Flinn, 1983).  In the course of the journey, he encounters challenges and meets victor Frankenstein weary and stuck in the ice. He offers to nurse him and take him aboard ship.  Victor then narrates his early life dating back to Geneva until he joins Ingolstadt University to study philosophy and chemistry. While pursuing his studies, he develops a desire to discover secrets of life that leads him to create a monster that turns out to be disastrous.  During his childhood, Victor spent his life in the company of his cousin Elizabeth Lavenza as projected in the 1818 edition and adopted sister in the 1831 edition (Freedman, 2002).

The reason as to why this is a gothic genre is the fact that the author focuses on supernatural and mysterious. Mysterious circumstances are manifest as Victor creates the monster. This is also manifest through the unclear circumstances that Victor works to collect body parts to carry out his experiments and his use of technologies that are less known.  Therefore, Shelley uses supernatural elements of macabre research and raising the dead that is a not so much explored field of science and also unknown to the readers (Gigante, 2000). The text therefore, instills horror and fear among the readers.

Gothic novels are set in specific places that are gloomy and places that are not well familiar to the audience. This is evident in this novel by the fact that it is set from parts of Switzerland and Germany that most of Shelley readers are not familiar with (Tropp, 1996).  Furthermore, the fact that, the laborites that Victor carried out the scientific experiment was not familiar to the areas at that time helped to increased or to add the elements of gloom and mystery.

The language that Victor uses in the novel also plays a role in identifying the roles of various people in the society such as women. For instance, women are regarded as passive and this is manifest when he refers to his mother by stating that his father “came as a protecting spirit to the poor girl who committed herself to his care” (Shelley, 1818). Furthermore, to indicate that Elizabeth became part of Victor’s family and that he is telling a story to the Walton he digresses with comments, “But before I continue my narrative, I must record an incident” (Shelley, 1818). The author therefore uses language and storytelling or Victor’s narrative to convey his message. This is important because, it helps to enhance understanding of the relationship that existed between him and Elizabeth and as well indicate to the readers that he is the one narrating the story.

The author also uses foreshadowing that is ubiquitous. The letters of Walton prepares the way for the awful events that victor is going to recount. Victor frequently alludes to the imminent doom as he calls his interest in natural philosophy, “the genius that has regulated my fate and the fatal impulse that led to my ruin” (Shelley, 1818). Therefore, the use of foreshowing in the novel causes a lot of suspense making the reader to wonder about the nature of the tragedy, which has the capacity to make victor to grief so much. Similarly, it also drains the suspense as it makes the reader to understand or to know that Victor has no hope. The use of words such as omen, fatal and fate help to reinforce that Victor tragedy is inevitable.

In this novel, Shelley therefore, uses different genre conventions to convey across her message. One of the genres she uses is letters that help to develop the themes and create a meaning of the story. She also uses gothic genre through the horrifying recounts of Victor’s experiments and other depictions that demonstrate mystery and supernatural (Bann, 1994). There is also good use of language and other literary devices such as foreshadowing that blends in conveying the message to the audience (Eberle-Sinatra, 2000). Therefore, there is close relationship between the texts and the genre the author uses to convey her message to the readers. This relationship is effective in enhancing message transition and making the novel interesting and captivating. It also triggers suspense, which contributes to making the novel more interesting and captivating. Therefore, this text follows genre conventions and through this, the author successfully manages to drive her message home thus indeed, the quest of knowledge sometimes must be overwhelming but the consequences of the quest may be heartbreaking.

In conclusion, “Frankenstein” is one of the novels that adopted gothic genre because of the themes adopted. The novel is characterized with horrifying scenes that touches on mystery and the supernatural. The search of knowledge through experiments turns out to be disastrous and a horrifying experience for Victor. Therefore, the text is well written and relates to the genre.

 

 

 

References

Bann, S. (1994).  “Frankenstein”: Creation and Monstrosity. London: Reaktion.

Eberle-Sinatra, M. ed. (2000). Mary Shelley’s Fictions: From “Frankenstein” to “Falkner”. New     York: St. Martin’s Press.

Freedman, C. (2002).  Hail Mary: On the Author of Frankenstein and the Origins of Science         Fiction, Science Fiction Studies 29(2): 253–64.

Gigante, D. (2000). Facing the Ugly: The Case of Frankenstein, ELH 67(2): 565–87.

O’Flinn, P. (1983). Production and Reproduction: The Case of Frankenstein,  Literature and         History 9(20: 194–213.

Schor, E. ed. (2003).  The Cambridge Companion to Mary Shelley. Cambridge: Cambridge           University Press.

Shelley, M. (1818). Frankenstein. Vol. 1 first edition. London: Lackington, Hghes, Harding,         Mavor & Jones.

Tropp, M. (1996).  Mary Shelley’s Monster. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Advantages and Disadvantages of Print and Social Media

Print media is one of the best and most commonly used means of advertising and passing information today. The most popular forms of print media are the newspapers and magazines.  Social media has emerged as the trendiest medium of passing information in the recent past. The benefits of social media are not limited only to social networking but also to professional online networking and as a marketing platform for business men (Rolland and Parmentier, 2013). Both the print and social media offer great opportunities for interaction and passing of information to individuals, organizations, and businesses to interact effectively with friends and target audience. The choice of which type of media to use for a given purpose should be guided by the benefits and drawbacks of using each of the methods as is discussed in this paper (Sandoval and Fuchs, 2014).

The print and social media have both advantages and disadvantages. This paper will analyze benefits of print media such as credibility and effectiveness in terms of reaching a target group in a certain geographical area. In addition the print media enables planning of the cost to be incurred in advertising and in formulating the most appropriate article for a given audience. This medium cannot, however, be used to convey information real time and is also limited in terms of cost effectiveness (Rolland and Parmentier, 2013). Social media has emerged as an easy but effective medium of communication. It is very cost effective and is able to reach a wide range of audience. However, the medium exposes organizations to cyber-crime and lowers the productivity of workers who engage on the social networks like Facebook (Rolland and Parmentier, 2013).

 

 

The use of print media has several benefits as compared to other mediums of communication. Newspapers and magazines have loyal readership unlike other methods such as the internet.  Some people enjoy starting their day with a cup of tea and a copy of newspaper as they catch up with what is happening around the world (Sandoval and Fuchs, 2014). Consequently, magazines have registered members who acquire regular editions through subscriptions depending on the frequency of production. This implies that it is easy to predict on the size of potential audience and plan for a given advert or article when using print media (Sandoval and Fuchs, 2014).

According to Ţierean (2010), print media uses well researched and presented articles that enhance the levels of credibility unlike article in the social media. Most people are likely to trust information found on newspaper articles and advertisements as compared to those found online. The online medium is open for anybody including imposters to post anything on their accounts.

Ţierean (2010), points out that print media are more engaging to readers since they are tangible unlike other mediums such as the internet. Reader’s attention is involved as they turn the pages looking for their favorite articles, images and advertisements. They are, therefore, more likely to capture more details of what is presented on the publication as compared to internet and television.

Rolland and Parmentier (2013), notes that it is possible to get an estimate of the pricing per every newspaper placement as they provide media kits and rate cards. They also provide information on the characteristics of their target audience in terms of how to make an advert more appealing and their buying behavior. This makes it easy for planning and developing of effective articles and advertisements.

Print materials are more readily available than most other types of media like the internet and have a longer lifespan. Newspapers are available at the It is very possible with print media to reach only to a specific target market (Fuchs & Sandoval, 2014). For instance, one is able to reach to people of a certain locality by use of a local newspaper. This is also an effective way of cutting on the cost involved unlike when using other methods (Rolland and Parmentier, 2013).

A study by Evans (2008), shows that social media is considerably cost effective and easy to use than other forms of media. The method allows one to reach out to a bigger audience through the use of the internet at a very minimal cost. Other forms of media require expertise and long procedures for one to be able to pass information. The social media is accessible to most people even through the use of internet enabled phones.

Social media presents a platform through which one is able to reach a bigger size of audience. Individuals, organizations and businesses are able to reach out even to international audience at the comfort of their offices and homes. This is almost impossible or extremely expensive in the case of other forms of media such as television and radio (Evans, 2008).

According to Allen and Wylie (2013), social media also offers an opportunity to organizations and businesses to interact with their target audience and offer responses where required. Clients are able to ask questions, raise concerns, and share experiences through networks such as Facebook and Twitter. This creates a good platform where of sensitization and creating of awareness as well as the sharing of ideas.

Allen and Wylie (2013), points out that through social media businesses and organizations are able to attract attention into premises, sites, products or services. It can also be used to create loyalty and lasting relations with clients and business partners. This can be achieved by creating links to websites on the social network sites or providing contacts for further clarifications.

Print media can be expensive depending on the popularity, readership, history, production cost and the frequency of publication. Smaller publications that are cheaper may not reach a considerable size of audience. The print materials are also out of reach to certain groups of people due to distribution hurdles (Allen and Wylie, 2013).

Sandoval and Fuchs (2014), notes that some print publications run once a month or quarterly and this offers a problem in terms of booking for space in advance. This implies that advertisements have to adhere to the publications schedule and not by the advertisers desired dates. It would be impossible, therefore, to use this medium to communicate emergencies or to convey an urgent awareness.

According to Sandoval and Fuchs (2014), print media do not run real time as they take time for production, printing, and distribution. This implies that the information may reach the audience when it is already out of date. The method cannot be used to broadcast real time events as is the case with radio and television.

Chambers (2013), points out that wrong use of use of the online medium could cause dire consequences to users or businesses. Mistakes done online, for instance, the use of inappropriate photos and posting of sensitive information online could damage the reputation of an organization greatly since it is likely to reach a considerable number of audiences.

According to Chambers (2013), social media is also likely to lower worker’s productivity as they spend more time chatting on social networks such as Twitter and Facebook. The workers are also likely to use the social media to damage the reputation of the organization. The social medium also has some dire consequences to the performance of students who spend a lot of their time of Facebook and twitter at the expense of their studies.

Social media is only available to people who have an access to internet. Information conveyed through this means is only able to reach those with computers or internet enabled phones. People in most rural areas have no access to internet and are likely not to get information conveyed through social medium (Chambers, 2013).

In conclusion, social media offers a powerful platform for individuals, businesses, and organizations to convey information and interact with others from all over the world at considerably low costs. It is easy to create and to an online account. Social media is both a platform for easy and advanced marketing and networking, and the greatest revolution of our century. However, the medium is not without drawbacks as it is not a very credible source of information. Print media is a very popular medium of conveying information and has been in use for a long time. The medium is trusted by most people since articles and advertisements posted on it are well researched and presented.  The medium also enjoys a loyal readership and this guarantees a wider audience. Print media is limited by the fact that it is not able to breaking news with the urgency that television and radio does.

 

 

 

References

Allen, L. A., & Wylie, M. C. (2013). Managing and collecting social media for e-discovery. Information Management Journal, 47(3), 22-26.

Chambers, D. (2013). Social Media and Personal Relationships : Online Intimacies and Networked Friendship. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

Del Giudice, M., Carayannis, E. G., & Peruta, M. (2013). Social Media and Emerging Economies : Technological, Cultural and Economic Implications. Cham: Springer.

Evans, D. (2008). Social Media Marketing : An Hour a Day. Indianapolis, Ind: Wiley.

Fuchs, C. & Sandoval, M., (2014). Critique, Social Media and the Information Society. New York, NY: Routledge.

Hendricks, J., & Noor Al-Deen, H. S. (2012). Social Media : Usage and Impact. Lanham, Md: Lexington Books.

Rolland, S. E., & Parmentier, G. (2013). The benefit of social media. International Journal Of Market Research, 55(6), 809-827.

Sandoval, M., & Fuchs, C. (2014). Critique, Social Media and the Information Society. New York, NY: Routledge.

Svatošová, V. (2012). Social Media Such As the Phenomenon of Modern Business. Journal Of Marketing Development & Competitiveness, 6(4), 1-24.

Ţierean, O. (2010). Social media — instrument al marketingului politic. (Romanian). Romanian Journal Of Marketing, 5(4), 116-135.

 

Case Summary

Milne v. USA Cycling Inc., 489 F. Supp. 2d 1283, (D.Utah 2007)

Facts

The plaintiffs, mountain bike race participants, sustained fatal injuries following a collision with a truck. The defendants were the promoters, organizers and promoters of the ‘open course’ race. The participants shared the open course with regular vehicle traffic. The heirs to the decedents sued the defendant for both gross negligence and ordinary negligence. Before the decedent participated in the race, he signed a release and waiver agreement, in which he accepted to waive all claims including his own negligence, in addition to releasing defendants from all liability for death or injuries sustained while participating in the race. The defendants filed a motion for summary judgment on grounds that the release agreement shielded them from liability for negligence. Furthermore, the defendants claimed that the release was preclusion from liability for any alleged gross negligence. The defendants also argued that they were not liable due to the fact that the plaintiffs could not substantiate their claim of gross negligence by any evidence.

The undisputed facts showed that the defendants placed a sign on the course prior to the race to inform passers-by about the event. In addition, there were parking attendants and marshals at the area of the race. The race official for the defendants also cautioned all participants to the race at the starting line about the dangers of using the open course with vehicle traffic. Lastly, the defendants placed a person on the course to conduct traffic control during the race.

Issue

• Whether the defendants would escape liability on grounds of the waiver and release agreement signed by the decedent.
• Whether the issue of gross negligence was a matter of law or it would be proper to be determined by the jury.
• Whether the waiver and release agreement barred the defendants from liability for wrongful death.

Ruling

The court ruled that Utah law provided for a party to obtain contractual releases from liability where a party enters into an agreement to release the other party from liability for future injuries. According to the court, the release agreement was clear. There was an unequivocal expression of an intention by the decedent to release the defendants from any liability. Therefore, the court ruled that there was a proper waiver and release from liability for ordinary negligence. In relation to the claims of gross negligence, the court observed that the Supreme Court of Utah had repeatedly held that releases are invalid against gross negligence claims.

With regard to the second issue as to whether the issue of gross negligence was a matter of law, the court described gross negligence as “a gross deviation from the standard of care that an ordinary person would exercise in the given circumstances”. According to the court, gross negligence results from the failure to exercise even slight care. It refers to a careless act which implies absolute unresponsiveness to possible consequences. The onus was on the plaintiff to show, in addition to an unrealistic risk of physical harm to another party, that the risk was substantially higher than that which is sufficient to make the conduct of the defendant negligent.

Though the court accepted the plaintiffs’ account of events, its position was that undisputed facts did not necessarily demonstrate that the risk was substantially higher than ordinary negligence. The defendants had informed at least three prospective motorists within the location of the race. They had put a sign on the course prior to the beginning of the race to notify passers-by about the event. They had also implemented minimal traffic control, even though the manner of implementation could be deemed as insufficient. In addition, the defendants had warned the participants of the race both orally and in writing in relation to the dangers caused by vehicle traffic on the course. With regard to these facts, the court ruled, as a matter of law, that the defendants were not liable for gross negligence. The rationale behind determining the issue of gross negligence as a matter of law was that granting summary judgment on gross negligence or ordinary negligence is commonly disfavored because of the exceptional role of the jury in these types of cases.

Basing on previous Supreme Court cases, the court held that the waiver and release agreement precluded the defendants from claims of wrongful death. The court acknowledged that the Supreme Court had not put much emphasis on the need for any assessment to be carried out when the issue of applying a defense in such circumstances is presented.

Application

The court basically used previous rulings of the Supreme Court in similar cases (Lee, 2013). The court predicted that the Supreme Court would allow the defense of waiver of liability through release. This prediction was made despite the fact the Supreme Court had not stated the rule very broadly.

Conclusion

The court ruled in favor of the defendants that the waiver and release agreement barred the defendants from liability (Utah State Bar). What the court clearly brought about is that there is barely any Utah law which directly addresses waiver and release, as well as express assumption of risk agreements, in relation to dangerous recreational activities (Lee, 2013). Utah has been described as ‘undecided’ in terms of this area of law. This case is a benchmark for similar future cases, in respect of getting rid of frivolous allegations of gross negligence that aim at circumventing the release agreements (Anthony, 2007).

 

References

Anthony, W. (2007). Milne v USA Cycling, Inc. (Utah). Collision Course. Retrieved from:                       http://defendingsportsblog.com/2007/06/20/collision-course/#more-23

Lee, W. D. (2013). Handbook of Section 1983 Litigation 2013. CCH Incorporated.

Milne v. USA Cycling Inc., 489 F. Supp. 2d 1283, (D.Utah 2007).

Utah State Bar. Utah Law Developments. Retrieved from: http://www.utahbar.org/category/utah- bar-journal/utah-law-developments/

 

 

 

 

Ethnicity and Race

 

Most social scientists believe children are not born prejudiced. Instead, prejudice is learned. Individuals may learn prejudice from their parents, family, peers or experience in schools, community, from media, and from other socialization experiences. Most of the countries have ethnic pluralism which should be balanced with national unity. There are specific problems that do arise in ethnically diverse societies. I do concur that prejudice is learned. My racial experience as I will explain in the story happened while I was still in primary. This is my story.

Although many of us had already studied the carbon cycle while in 7^th grade, our teacher Ms. Mark being in considerate of high student mobility rate, could not assume that every 8^th grade student had the mastery of this challenging concept. For that matter, she attempted to review photosynthesis the week before. Together we constructed items explaining the role of sunlight being the energy source that plants utilize in producing sugars just from water and carbon dioxide.

The following week, we progressed onto alternative energy and tackled corn chips. Ms. Mark used to teach five classes with each having its own unique character. Our class was dynamic and she ever looked forward each day to fast-paced interchanges. She was working hard to ensure that she engendered a serene and respectful atmosphere for purposes of discussion and her 29 students possessed a relaxed rapport that indicated respect for one another’s individuality.

Raising of hand was not the order of the day in Ms. Mark’s classroom. She had realized that lack of formality fostered participation from students who had less likelihood of contributing in a traditional setting. The teacher incorporated creative ways of encouraging individual responsibility to learn such as share-outs, picking names, and cooperative grouping. In reinforcing personal and collective responsibility in various cooperative groups, Ms. Mark employed a roll-a-number technique where she allocated numbers 1 to 6 to each team members and then arguments solicited from the members of the team whose number was being rolled.

Ms. Mark’s class was composed of students emanating from different ethnic and racial backgrounds. She continually underpinned the idea that discussions that are scientific in nature become more full-bodied when there are kinds of different perspectives. Ms. Mark always reminded the class that it was each individual’s responsibility in enhancing the knowledge of the group by contributing one’s own perspective.

A few days later, students read and discussed as well as presented articles and preliminary research on ethanol and other alternate fuels. Students also observed the products that result from a burning candle in a projector camera. The class teams in their participation worked together in a “walk through”, a model for the life cycle of ethanol matter. The students held cards bearing the names of molecules embedded on them by the aid of a yarn in tracking their “journey.”

However, some students confused the words ‘matter,’ ‘energy,’ and ‘fuel’ and even used them interchangeably. This made them to be unclear on the relationship between matter and energy in the whole process. The ‘culprits’ mainly were some black and this presented a dirty scene where they were abused by some whites as ‘thick-headed.’ A racial discrimination was presented in this scenario. Despite the tireless efforts of Ms. Mark to mingle students and work as a group in unity, this ethnic biasness was evidenced. To worsen the situation, some white students termed these black folk as ‘monkeys whom are disturbing.’ This scenario has since stacked in my mind as a glue. Indeed racial difference is real in our society.

In spite of this, as the 8^th grade class rivuleted into their science classroom founding their seats by the table, Ms. Mark proceeded in opening the file of the names of the project teams of the week within the interactive whiteboard. She sturdily believed that random rearranging of team groupings give her students the best opportunity in interacting and learning from both dissimilar and self-selected peer sets. Ms. Mark also ensured that by maintaining the self-selected related partnerships, she could encourage a crucial social support system for her students. This was done by using the interactive whiteboard application in combination with the smaller self-selected teams of 2 or 3 with one another.

Ms. Mark already had posted three (3) familiar ethanol production sites along the classroom walls and marked by big printed signs coupled with home-made and blown-up pictures of native areas such as: 1. Farm filed, 2. Refinery, and 3. Gas station. Moreover, she possessed a copy of the Life Cycle Assessment Process Tools and planned to separately model energy and matter in driving the idea home that they could be separately traced. These sites or stations represented main points for inputs and outputs as well as transformation of energy and matter as crop grows converting it to fuel. This is because the class was researching on ethanol production via process of fermentation. This activity would assist students in testing their understanding on how matter is transformed by both living and non-living constituents in an ecosystem through the fermentation process and the overall biofuel life cycle.

As the class was still in the mood of discussing the staff of Life Cycle Assessment Process Tool, Ms. Mark using the same pictures or photos of the stations embedded on the interactive whiteboard, made a drawing of three rectangles and did write their designations as farm, refinery, and car. She also drew straight purple lines that indicated both matter input and output while wavy red lines indicated energy input and output. Ms. Mark also did cut red and purple yarn for her students and this represented and tracked the journey that was taken by matter throughout the whole cycle.

Ms. Mark then made a proclamation, “Last week, we traced matter input and output for the carbon cycle of ethanol production and combustion, and we had some unanswered questions. Today, we are going to see where energy fits into the process.” This statement embroiled some serious concerns. It seemed that the whole topic of ethanol production took long and some students were bored up. They would just throw words anyhow and helter-skelter. I can remember one white fellow student responding to Ms. Mark very badly who happened to be a black woman. The student remarked, “I’m tired of this staff, you take them to your fellow folk. You are disgusting and may be those monkeys can keep enjoying your lectures.” The whole class came to a standstill. The students had all their eyes focused on Ms. Mark looking sympathetically. This situation further dawned to me that racial prejudice is a real “disease” ravaging our society.

Comparison of Moliere and Joyce’s Depiction of family

Moliere and Joyce are two playwrights who created plays that revolved around families. The plays were titled “Tartuffe” and “The Dead” respectively. In Tartuffe, the play features a hypocritical man who masquerades as a pious pauper out to lead his hosts to heaven, a plot that almost succeeds thanks to their gullibility. “The dead” on the other hand is focused on a man of Irish descent and his quest to live up to the expectations of his family members while at the same time struggling to keep his insecurities under control. Through their plays, these authors make a spirited effort at depicting family life albeit using different angles.

According to Moliere, the woes of a family begin when its members allow outside influence without taking time to consider the authenticity or otherwise of such forces. Orgon though wealthy was also very gullible and this provided Tartuffe with an ample opportunity to weave his way into the household and have access to normally restricted aspects of the family such as the daughter’s hand in marriage. (Moliere, 28) In Joyce’s view however, the troubles a family experiences come from within it and more specifically from undue pressure being placed upon the members of the family by each other. This leads them to engage in self-destructive actions all in the name of saving face while their actions are in reality counter-productive. Gabriel for instance lives a highly inhibited life and this stops him from being true to himself. (Joyce, 15)

Another element that Joyce brings out through her play is the fact that the state of family can be used as a pointer or reference point for what is going in in the larger society. Though her play is focused on Gabriel and his extended family, it is clear that the moods presented by the members of this family are also manifested by the Irish community that lives on the Island. This is to say that they are their own enemies so to say since they are the very same people opposed to Irish Nationalism as well as well as the people who wish for the restoration of Irish culture. Gabriel himself seems to do the very same thing by making a deliberate effort of ‘hiding’ his brother’s drunkenness from the guests. His aunt’s open disdain for him is seen in her statement, “”Now, isn’t he a terrible fellow. Moliere on the other hand uses the family to illustrate the relationship between the congregation and the clergy in that desperation for authentic religious leadership has the potential to lead the worshippers of a particular faith down the wrong path into the hands of hypocrites who seek to use their followers for their own benefits. Despite his outward show, Tartuffe had no real intention of improving the spiritual lives of his victims. One of his many efforts to present himself holy is captured in the following quote, “Before you speak, pray take this handkerchief”

In conclusion it can be stated that both of these playwrights believe that the institution of a family is the best instrument that can be used to satirically represent issues facing a given society because it is indeed the basic unit of any community. The reason why this is made possible is the fact that placing focus on a specific family will inadvertently direct the audience’s attention towards their relationships and this makes it an appropriate vehicle for communicating contentious issues that will often have proponents and opponents.

Works Cited

Molière, J: une aventure théâtralé. Tartuffe, Don Juan, Le misanthrope. Gallimard, 1963.

Joyce, J. The dead. Coyote Canyon Press, 2008.