High patient to nurse rate show

Introduction

Even though hospitals and healthcare centers with low nurse levels of staff as compared to the number of patients tend to have increased rates of poor patient results, increasing the levels of nurse staff is difficult. Among the key factors that lead to lower rates of nurse staff include the present higher acuity patients’ needs for more care, as well as, a countrywide gap in the number of positions that are available and the number nurses that are registered nurses willing and qualified to fill the positions (Rosseter, 2014). This being the case, therefore, the paper focuses on discussing the problem of high patient to nurse rate. The paper gives a background on the problem and the advantages and disadvantages of the issue.

Background

The high patient to nurse rate cause heavy workload for nurses in hospitals and care centers. This is caused by four major reason that include reduced staffing and increased overtime, insufficient supply of nurses, increased demand for nurses, and the reduction in patient length to stay (Dhillon, 2011). The low rate of nurses reflects substantial changes in career expectations, population demographics, worker satisfaction, and work attitudes. Although, the number of nursing vacancies is expected to increase tremendously as years go by, the number of nurses is also expected to increase, but by a smaller proportion. High patient rate to nurse is a great challenge that needs to be addressed as it leads to undesirable effects (Lake, Shang, Klaus, & Dunton, 2010).

Advantages and Disadvantages of high patient to nurse rate show

Advantages related to high patient to nurse rate are few since the costs outweigh the benefits. It results to job involvement as the nurse is always busy attending to many patients. This, in turn, leads to high job experience and career advancement. One of the disadvantages of high patient ratio to the number of nurses is that is associated with unpleasant outcomes such as deaths in hospitals (Rosseter, 2014)). This is because the nurse may not attend to all patients, leading to deaths and critical conditions of patients. High patient ratio to nurse also results to workload of the nurse, which may make the patient not to perform work efficiently and effectively. Workload leads to job dissatisfaction. There is also the disadvantage of increased costs.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

References

Dhillon, B. (2011). Patient Safety: An Engineering Approach. Hoboken: CRC Press.

Lake, E. T., Shang,, J., Klaus, S., & Dunton, N. E. (2010). Patient Falls: Association with Hospital Magnet Status and Nursing Unit Staffin. US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health, 33(5), 413-425.

Rosseter, R. (2014). Nursing Shortage. American Association of Colleges of Nursin, 1(1), 1-7.

 

 

The last bed in the ICU

Non-malfeasance ethical principle was an issue in this case where Intern B was required not to do any action which could hurt Mrs. A as their patient or lead to deteriorating of her emphysema condition. Intern B was also expected to consider all available less invasive treatment for Mrs. A before applying other invasive treatment methods, as an application of the non-malfeasance ethics. Legal and moral ethics were also applicable in the case since Mrs. A was conscious and could give permission to be helped, in addition to her life being in danger which leads to application of moral ethics. This indicated the emergency of the situation where she was becoming more lethargic and could die before that morning if she was not given a respirator. Personal rights were also involved since Mrs. A had the right to decide if she needed help from Intern B or not, since she had the right to live.

The possible alternatives solutions in the situation would have considered Mrs. A, who knew her age and the number of times she had been in and out of the hospital. Mrs. A had the personal right to decide whether she could accept help and thus demands for the last bed in the ICU or she could decide to decline from getting the help, a situation which could leave the Intern B only an option to comply with legal ethics in the healthcare services. Mrs. A’s sons could also have decided their wish for the care of their mother, from having got all information concerning her current condition where she had respiratory failure and could die by that morning. These could have led to the perception of her condition as an emergency and thus they could have demanded for that last bed in the ICU. The staff had also the decision which could have possibly termed Mrs. A’s condition as an emergency for the last bed, a consideration which could have been be supported by other physicians including Intern B.

The ethical values evident in the above possible solutions are legal, moral and personal rights values. Legal values require live of a patient to be saved when in danger, while moral values lead to consider Mrs. A’s condition as emergency where she could die if not given a respirator. Personal rights were on Mrs. A, who could have decided whether to be helped or not, and also her sons who had the right to demand treatment for their mother.

Demand and Elasticity in Health Care

1) Write the formula for price elasticity of demand and describe what it means.

The price elasticity of demand can be calculated by dividing the percentage change in quantity demanded by the percentage change in prices. The formulae for price elasticity of demand, PEoD = (% change in quantity demanded)/ (% change in price). Price elasticity of demand indicates the response of the quantity demanded of a product because of the changes in prices of the product (Dewar, 2011). It is a measure that shows how changes in price of a product affect the quantity demanded of the product. The price elasticity of demand is measured in absolute terms as opposed to changes in relative amounts. This is because the relative value of price elasticity of demand is often negative but in the calculation it is often expressed in absolute value terms.

The price elasticity of demand can take up three main forms that include elastic demand, unit elastic demand and inelastic demand. Elastic demand is a case where the price elasticity of demand has a value that is more than 1, unit elasticity of demand is a case when a 1 percent change in price results to a 1 percent change in quantity demanded. Inelastic price elasticity of demand is case where the price elasticity of demand is less than 1.
2) How would you expect the price elasticity of demand for health care to vary with health status?

The price elasticity of demand for health care can vary with the health status of patients. Healthcare services have relatively low price elasticity of demand. Experts believe that price elasticity for health care is inelastic. This implies that patients are not sensitive to changes in the price of health care services. As the health status of patients deteriorates, the price elasticity of demand of health care services will become more inelastic. This is because the patients will not be able to consider the alternatives but rely on the physician advice to get the health care services. When the client’s health status is stable, the price elasticity of demand for health care will become less elastic. In this case, the patient can choose the medical health care to seek treatment based on the prices. Hence it can be argued that as the health status of patients become worse, the price elasticity of demand for health care services become more inelastic (Dewar, 2011).
3) Would the demand for health care increase or decrease with an improvement in educational attainment in the community?

The improvement of educational attainment in the community will result to a decrease in demand of the health care products (Folland et al, 2007). This is because through improvement of educational standard in a community, there will be a creation of enhanced awareness towards the importance of ensuring health safety in the society.  This can make individuals to be aware of various health safety measures and precaution that can results to low incidences of diseases in the community. Individuals will also be able to acquire the preventive knowledge of various diseases and infections hence results to low demand of heath care. Education can also enable individuals to have knowledge of the consequences of various health risks factors such as drinking, smoking illegal drugs, preventive health care and household care.  This can lead to better healthcare standard of the educated community hence reduces the demand of health care products.
4) Studies using macroeconomic data indicate higher income elasticity for health care. Does that make health care an inferior, normal, or superior good? Explain.

A study that uses macroeconomic data shows high-income elasticity for health care. This suggests that health care is a superior good. For superior goods, the increase in income level of consumers will results to greater increase in quantity demanded than the increase in the percentage income (Dewar, 2011). This implies that the percentage increase in quantity demanded for superior goods will be more than the percentage increase in the income levels of the consumers.  The macro economic data considers the national income of the country and the health care spending. The result is applicable for both industrialized and developing nations.  One major factor that can lead to this result is that health care service is regarded as a public good and the government considered it as important towards improving the welfare of the community.
5) Describe the components of time cost in health care. Is time less costly for patients with higher wage rates? Explain.

Time cost can be defined as the value of time that is used in any given activity. The time cost of consuming a health care product can be determined by two main factors that include the that time that is taken by patient when they are waiting for an appointment and the time that clients take when traveling to the health care institution (Edberg, 2009). Other component of time cost in health care services is the insurance and the wages of patients. Insurance is considered as a time cost component for health care since it determines the health care that patient should seek and which the insurance providers use. Wage is also a time cost component of insurance since it will determines the opportunity cost of the patient as a result of seeking health care service.  Time is more costly for patients with higher wage rates. This is because the patients with higher wage rates will have high opportunity cost of time.

References

Dewar, D. M. (2011). Essentials of health economics, Jones and Bartlett Publishers

Edberg, M. C. (2009). Essential readings in health behavior: theory and practice. Jones &

Bartlett Learning

Folland, S., Goodman, A. C., & Stano, M. (2007). The economics of health and health care (Vol.

6). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

MARKETING IN MODERN AGE

Word Count 5022

 

Table of Contents

Abstract. 3

Introduction: 4

Social Media Marketing. 5

Key Learning. 8

Effectiveness of internet marketing. 10

Key Learning. 13

Creative approaches in marketing. 15

Key Learning. 18

Methodology. 18

Conclusion. 20

Bibliography. 22

 

 

 

 

 

Abstract

This review is based on the fact that technology has transformed marketing in the modern age.

The scope involved various themes that connect with the noticeable shift in the trends and strategies of marketing. Predominantly, the study placed significant emphasis on the patterns of adoption of online marketing strategies by big and small companies. These factors were considered in line with the subject of marketing in the modern age. The use of snowballing was appropriate in establishing consistency and harmony in the information obtained. Overall, the research created a strong ground for readers to understand the key concepts of marketing in the modern age. The study emphasized on how technology has increased benefits of marketing thus, allowing businesses to expand both locally and internationally. This research established the need for organizations to embrace creative marketing strategies. This form of marketing is crucial as it helps businesses to convert first time clients to frequent and potential clients. The review therefore focuses on how technology has influenced marketing in the modern age.

Introduction:

The noticeable shift in the methods and strategies of marketing provides a clear signal to the changing market forces and conditions on localized and international stages (Watson, 2008, Begalli, Codurri & Gaeta, 2009 and Cateora, et al 2012). For example Watson (2008) argued that, technology has transformed how businesses market their goods and services in the modern age. Further, Begalli, Codurri & Gaeta (2009), the changes of marketing in the modern age have emerged because of the need to align the goals of marketing with emerging global realities, expansion of technological solutions, and the fluid nature of consumer preferences. To Cateora, et al (2012), the methods of marketing in the modern age have changed and improved. Unlike in the past centuries, businesses become more efficient on how they market their products both locally and internationally. Overall, Watson, 2008, Begalli, Codurri & Gaeta, 2009 and Cateora, et al 2012 affirm that technology has become the driving factor, which facilitates the process of globalization. To Shimasaki (2009), the improvements of technology have increased communication and information exchange, thus increasing access to information. Shimasaki believes that, the development of technology has enhanced efficiency in promoting new products and ideas worldwide regardless of the geographic barriers.

The articles and books reviewed were subjectively evaluated to ensure their relevance and validity in this research. The searches for the articles were done as per topic because the review analyzed three themes. In some instances, snowball literature search was utilized, which involved looking for the most recent articles through libraries such as proquest. Other recent articles were searched through Google search engine. Overall, the research obtained was reviewed from books, journals, and reputable institutions. The snowball approach allowed for the exploration of a body of literature, which responded harmoniously with the requirements of the study. The approach ensured that the topic remains within the specific dimensions of the study.

Social Media Marketing

Marketing in the modern age has transformed significantly (Zeithaml, Parasuraman, and Berry (2005). The growth of the internet technology has created a strong platform for companies to market their goods effectively (Jovicevic Ratimir and Jovicevic Ljubica 2014, p1076). The two researchers concluded that the growth of the internet technology has multiplied options for marketers in ways that enable companies to reach wider segments in a more effective and sustainable manner. Using a survey of how developed countries have embraced technology in their businesses, Zeithaml, Parasuraman, and Berry (2005) argued that, social media has transformed marketing in the modern age. Although this research reported that social media has enhanced a great impact in marketing, it failed to analyze various social media sites used by businesses to market their products. On the other hand, Jovicevic Ratimir and Jovicevic Ljubica (2014, p1076) used quantitative research to examine how developed countries have embraced technology in their businesses. Their research concluded that, marketing in the modern age has changed significantly because of technology. Application of new technological tools has created strong impact on the marketing and multiplies profit in businesses. This research affirms that, the current marketing practices enhance a strong influence for companies to attract new clients and further convert them to frequent and potential clients. This research looks for a deeper approach to discuss how technology has increased the intensity of customer satisfaction. Despite Zeithaml, Parasuraman, and Berry (2005) and Jovicevic Ratimir and Jovicevic Ljubica (2014, p1076) agreeing that social media has created a strong platform for companies to market their goods, the two studies failed to provide various social media sites used by companies to market their goods and services.

Minton, Lee, Orth,  Kim & Kahle  (2012, p69-84) and Soliman (2011) observed that, social medial creates an ideal advertising medium for companies because it increases communication, which is a vital tool in marketing. The two studies employed an analytic approach to determine the impact of social media on modern marketing practices. The analytic methodology enabled the study to reach logical and testable conclusions that enhanced the element of the study. In many ways, Minton, Lee, Orth,  Kim & Kahle  (2012, p69-84) asserted that social media has improved communication in the business industry. Additionally, Soliman (2011) agreed that social media sites create a strong ground for companies to interact with their consumers. Despite Minton, Lee, Orth,  Kim & Kahle  (2012, p69-84) ) providing marketers with adequate details about, which motives to target on which social media; they failed to provide the best social media sites used by most companies. In future, the two studies would consider adding this information to help those in business.

Fisher (2009), Taleghani, Gilaninia &Mousavian (2011), and Hoffman and Fodor, (2010) considered social media as an emergent marketing strategy by which firms can enhance their levels of profitability and reduce on the costs. These researchers concluded their research that, advertisers should develop mass-marketing campaigns and delve into marketing campaigns that attract consumers across the globe. Specifically, an analytic study conducted by Hoffman and Fodor, (2010) and Taleghani, Gilaninia &Mousavian (2011) discovered specific advantages of social media marketing for firms and businesses. The two studies considered social media as an emergent marketing strategy by which firms can enhance their levels of profitability and reduce on the costs. This study employed an analytic approach to determine the impact of social media on modern marketing practices. The analytic methodology enabled the study to reach logical and testable conclusions that enhanced the element of the study. In many ways, the study by Fisher (2009) showed that, technology has improved marketing in the modern age. Fisher (2009) used quantitative research to examine how most developed and developing countries have improved in their marketing. The study explored the subject of marketing in line with the attendant comparative advantage when analyzed against the traditional approaches. . In future, these researches would consider giving detail information of how companies can achieve effective marketing campaigns.

On the other hand, Palmer (2011) and Treem &Leonardi (2012) argued that, marketers have attempted to embrace untested strategies in response to the unique market forces that originate from globalization and liberalization of the global market economy. A growing body of literature by the two studies discussed the extent by which modern market preferences differ from the traditional approaches. However, there is need to broaden their discussion study to include the impact of these new approaches to performance and sustainability as argued by (Lovelock and Gummesson 2004)

A study conducted by Witkemper & Waldburger (2012, p170) and Surchi (2011) examined the influence of social media in businesses. These studies concluded that social media marketing has transformed the business industry. According to Witkemper & Waldburger (2012, p170) social media is frequently used by sports organizations as well as athletes to communicate with their fans. Witkemper & Waldburger research provided a number of sites used by sports organization.  For instance, the research outlined that Face book, Twitter, and Instagram have been utilized to provide information, post videos and pictures, and advertize upcoming events. YouTube has also been used to share videos with fans. By utilizing social media, sport organizations are attempting to take advantage of evolution of technology that keeps consumers connected and aware of its brand. The research was a healthy beginning for this research on marketing in the modern age. However, theories on the impacts or effects of social media in sport should be further developed to identify additional constraints and motivations. Strengthening this research could increase effective sport marketing strategies that connect sport organizations to their fans.  On the other hand, Surchi (2011) focused on the concept of a temporary store as a convenient marketing tool. The fashion brands were selected because of their application of the concept of a temporary store. The study also applied in-depth interviews that focused on the nature, successes, and challenges of the concept of temporary store on the Italian market.  This research evaluated whether or not social media had enhanced a great impact in marketing in the fashion businesses. After evaluation, it was clear that those businesses that utilized social media sites such as Face book, Twitter, and Instagram were in a better position to attract new clients and convert them to potential and frequent clients. The study was deep in content in that, it laid a strong ground to understand the benefits of social media in marketing particularly attracting new clients. In future, this business would consider adding theories or hypothesis about the effect of using social media sites in marketing.

Key Learning

From the ongoing discussion, it is evident that with the recent innovation of technology, social media has improved marketing in this era. Overall, most authors agree that social media have reduced marketing cost. It is crucial to note that, the ability to tweet or post a message in face book is more cost effective than putting a message in the billboard. Social media have impacted the search results of marketing in the modern age. Social media allow businesses to broadcast their content to wide number of interested readers. It has also created a strong ground where businesses can evaluate customer comments, concerns, and questions regarding the goods and services offered. Most authors agree that customers using social media platforms such as Twitter and Face book can easily make their comments than visiting offices to do so.

 Effectiveness of internet marketing

 

In their research, Ketter & Avraham (2012, p285) and Witkemper & Waldburger (2012, p170) agreed that, marketing and communication are crucial processes of exchanging information between businesses and consumers.  The two researchers concluded that, back in the 1800s, most businesses encountered difficulties while marketing their products. Technology created a strong path for marketers to market their goods and services effectively without having to travel in miles. Specifically, Ketter & Avraham(2012, p285) believed that the evolution of online marketing is related to the evolution of technology. According to Witkemper & Waldburger (2012, p170), recent changes in the technological environments play a crucial role of marketing and communication.  Although this study discovered integrative relations that enhance effective communication in the modern age, it should be noted that the traditional methods of marketing such as face-to-face still exist in the modern age. This provided a great opportunity for future studies to access the transforming environment of traditional methods of marketing in the modern age.

In a different research Hussain et al, (2012), Lovelock and Gummesson (2004), Begalli, Codurri and Gaeta (2009), Oliver (2004)  and Simmons (2011) conducted a qualitative study on the effectiveness of internet marketing for medical doctors and practitioners in Malaysia. Their study seeks to fill in the gap left by studies that have overlooked the value of the internet as an innovative and highly effective marketing tool. According to these researches, the practice of medicine needs the support of an effective marketing strategy for productivity and success. Hussain et al, (2012) study acknowledges the unique challenges facing doctors and medical practitioners who rely on traditional structures and methods of advertising. The study was premised on the fact that the traditional methods of advertisement have significant limitations that affect the levels of efficacy of medical doctors and other medical practitioners from achieving their full potential. The study recognizes internet marketing as an effective approach to marketing and the development of strategy. Lovelock and Gummesson (2004) and Simmons (2011) affirmed that, internet is applied towards the purpose of enhancing the aspect of popularity on the market. The usage is customized in a way that enhances the reception of the market. This characteristic of the ISW usage of the internet is consistent with the way in which other entrepreneurs apply the usage of the internet to influence positive results. The internet resource enables the wine entrepreneurs to sell their brands to the market with high effectiveness and faster speed. This usage also comes with the advantage of reduced costs particularly when compared with the traditional forms of marketing. . In future, researchers would consider the effect of embracing technology in marketing. This would create a strong ground to understand the benefits and limitations of internet in the marketing in the modern age.

Begalli, Codurri and Gaeta (2009) and Oliver (2004) sought to determine the levels of internet marketing and the effectiveness of such marketing within the Italian wine industry. The findings showed that the usage of the internet as a marketing tool is at the preliminary stages. Specifically, Begalli, Codurri and Gaeta (2009) study focused on the Italian Specialty Wineries (ISW). The study entailed a sample of 272 wineries of high quality. The methodology involved analyzing the existing websites through a 7Cs model, which was adapted. Among the various advantages of an adapted 7Cs model is that it involves a combination of a univariate and a multivariate series. In addition, the methodology involved a structured questionnaire, which was used to obtain the views of the various entrepreneurs regarding internet marketing. Unlike other studies that focus so much on the importance of internet in marketing, Begalli, Codurri and Gaeta, (2009) and Oliver (2004) seemed to take their research in a different point of view. After conducting their research, the two researches affirmed that the determination of the value of marketing should be assessed in terms of that combines effects of the synergies and other supporting factors that connect with the element of change. In this regard, it becomes necessary to assess the impact of the new approaches to marketing. The uniting themes in these studies seem to locate internet marketing at the center of the market modern approaches with noticeable emphasis on the aspect of quality and performance. The perspectives adopted in this study are largely united in their estimation of the opportunities in the various approaches of internet-based research. However, Begalli, Codurri and Gaeta (2009) and Oliver (2004) failed to recognize the cost that most companies use in internet-based research. Recognizing why most companies encounter challenges of meeting the cost of technology would help future researchers to include a budget that meets the cost of internet marketing.

According to Oliver (2004) and Begalli, Codurri and Gaeta, (2009), both small businesses and multinationals have adopted flexible practices that attune with the fluid practices in marketing. Their study concluded that, Internet marketing offers opportunities for interaction in ways that help in the pursuit of various objectives in businesses. The advantage of a feedback mechanism in Facebook and Twitter provides effective opportunities for engaging with clients of various demographic distinctions. In various respects, Levere (2002) also believe that, some of the factors that determine the competitive advantage of a company usually revolve around the ability to connect with the clients across various demographic variables. The use of the current approaches to obtain a competitive advantage is a matter that engages with the need represent the client within a broad market as established by current studies. The use of Facebook as an effective marketing tool provides a good example of the unique and effective nature of internet marketing. However, Oliver (2004) and Begalli, Codurri and Gaeta, (2009) failed to recognize the most used social media site that attracts most clients.

Consequently, Jambulingam and Sharma (2010) and Stuart (2013) conducted a study on internet marketing regarding its value on its value on pharmaceutical companies in the United States. The study was anchored on a hypothesis that matched stock prices on the availability of information. The value of internet marketing was examined in line with its contribution to the productivity and general performance. The findings were coherent in that they created a strong ground to understand the importance of internet improving marketing in the modern age. It was clear that; internet has opened many opportunities to interact with consumers and most importantly improved communication. Through internet, consumers have had a wonderful experience to search what they want online. There is no restriction whatsoever in regard to distance or time. Businesses have also had a great opportunity to market their products worldwide. A person in the United States can learn about a company in Africa even without travelling in that region. However, the Jambulingam and Sharma (2010) and Stuart (2013) failed to mention the challenges that emerge in internet marketing.

Key Learning

After conducting the research in the above theme, there are various lessons that one may learn from most authors. Overall, most authors agree that internet has improved marketing in the modern age. Specifically, it has improved communication and information exchange. Unlike in the past centuries where businesses had to market their products via face-to-face method, internet has created a strong platform where can market the products online. Typically, most authors agree that businesses have flourished because of recent innovations of technology. Businesses can interact effectively with their consumers through social media networks such as Facebook and Twitter. Also, businessmen have had a wonderful opportunity to interact with other businessmen. Internet has created a path where business can flourish in their marketing. Internet has become very beneficial in the modern age.

 

 

Creative approaches in marketing

Pati, (2002), Mullin, Sutton & Hurdy (2007) and Stoldt, Dittmore, & Branvold (2012) believes that technology has enhanced creative approaches in marketing. These researches helps readers to understand the tremendous change that have occurred from traditional methods of marketing such as billboard to those creative approaches. In particular, Pati (2002) argues that, the modern practices of marketing provide great synergies for businesses performance regardless of variations of place, size, and nature of business. In detail, Mullin, Sutton & Hurdy (2007) affirm that, traditional approaches to marketing usually entailed a heavy reliance on the print and electronic media as the most significant way of connecting with the targeted market segments. The use of bill boards and other types of mass publications helped advertisers to adjust appropriately with the requirements of the market. Now, it becomes clear to Mullin, Sutton & Hurdy that, the use of the internet resource changed the art of communication in ways that helped companies save on costs and multiple logistical disadvantages. According to Stoldt, Dittmore, & Branvold (2012), countries have managed to adjust to new market realities that require creative solutions in order to enhance the element of performance. Despite Pati, (2002), Mullin, Sutton & Hurdy (2007) and Stoldt, Dittmore, & Branvold (2012) outlining how social media have improved communication, they fail to analyze how this has affected marketing in modern age. In future, these studies would be improved by considering the creative strategies enacted by technology. In so doing, the researches would enhance a great impact to the readers particularly those in businesses.

In the modern age most organizations have embraced creative marketing to attract new clients and further convert them to potential and frequent clients (Stoldt, Dittmore, & Branvold 2012, Shimp 2010, and Smith & Taylor 2004). These studies concluded that most companies have taken advantage of recent innovations of technology. Most businesses have also implemented new and better marketing strategies to emerge the best over other competitors. Shimp (2010) conducted his study among local and international businesses. He found a positive correlation between technology and creativity in marketing. Through the help of the social media and internet, Stoldt, Dittmore, & Branvold 2012, Shimp 2010, and Smith & Taylor 2004 found out that marketing has progressed and created endless opportunities for businesses to expand both locally and internationally. The studies were limited in that they only focused on few organizations. In future, these researches would be improved by analyzing a large number of local and international businesses in the world, which would increase validity and accuracy of data.

A research conducted by Nike in 2013 and Mullin, Sutton & Hurdy (2007) affirmed that, a growing preference for creative approaches in marketing has largely been defined by the wide spread adoption of social networking as a suitable, convenient, and flexible way of advertising. Essentially, Facebook and Twitter are some of the results-oriented approaches that have helped companies and institutions to gain large access to targeted markets over the times. Based on their financial analysis in 2013, Nike found out that they had achieved a considerable profit after embracing technology that increases creativity. Mullin, Sutton & Hurdy (2007) believed that, some of the dominant factors that determine the success of online marketing entail the use of results-oriented approaches to affect the markets. In many ways, the use of social networks enables the marketers to engage with the market in a more precise way as compared to the other available solutions. The various studies that engage with the question of effectiveness usually entail the creation of an effective approach that enables the pursuit of specific business goals. Mullin, Sutton & Hurdy (2007) and Nike (2013) believes that creative strategy must be informed. In this case, businesses must establish various things that competitors are doing in the market to succeed. They should also embrace the recent innovations of technology to succeed in the modern age where technology is the order of the day. Although these researches are deep in content, they fails to consider the main strategies used by online marketers and how effective they are in attracting new clients and further converting them to potential and frequent clients.

From the ongoing discussion, the professional and act of creative marketing is an interesting aspect. As Jambulingam & Sharma (2010), Deresky (2013), and Essawy (2011) put it, for a marketing message to attract a large number of audiences, it must be precise and highly focused on the audience. This requires companies to make choices that attractive, plausible, and logical. Essawy (2011) believes that a creative strategy defines what the company intends to achieve over a given span of time.  Thus, Usui (2008), Wilkinson (2008), Williams & Page (2011), and Wilson, Gosling, & Graham (2012) believes that, a company should work hard to market its goods and services in a capturing way to attract clients worldwide. When enacting a creative strategy, the company should understand the target audience and further, evaluate ways to reach the community or else the audience. Knowing the target audience of the marketing and advertising helps the company to plan how to attract a large number of clients. In a different research by Tsiotsou, Rigopoulou & Kehagias (2010), these authors believe that companies should highlight the benefits that emerge when consumers become potential and frequent clients. This research believes that, an organization must have an idea of why the audience should prefer purchasing their products to other organizations. Therefore, the organization may use facts and perceptions that portray quality products and services.  On the contrary, Richtel (2013) believes that there various factors that would affect and influence the success of the brand in the market. The author gives a perfect example of smoking in public, which has been considered a social vice thus affecting sales and marketability of cigarettes in the past. This research would be improved if it embraced how marketing is done effectively to sell the brand. Future researchers would outline how various companies succeed to market their brand to consumers.

Key Learning

Most authors believe that creative marketing has been a powerful force of attracting new clients and converting them to frequent and potential clients. Creative marketing strategies have created a strong ground where businesses can market their products effectively by targeting the audience. There are various things that evolve creative marketing strategies. Some of the things that businesses should consider are creating captivating and persuasive message to the audience. Businesses should persuade their consumers that their products and services are worth considering. Overall, most authors agree that creative marketing strategies cannot be underestimated in improving marketing in the modern age. To sum up, this theme outlines that creative marketing helps businesses to achieve their goals and objectives.

Methodology

Most of the studies reviewed were mainly conducted  through survey research such as Tsiotsou, Rigopoulou & Kehagias (2010), Usui (2008), Wilkinson (2008), Williams & Page (2011), and Wilson, Gosling, & Graham (2012) just to nam a few. For instance, Wilkinson (2008) conducted an online survey among 200 companies who had embraced technology in their marketing.  The research concluded that those using technology in the modern age are succeeding and emerging the best over other competitors. In a different research, Minton, Lee, Orth,  Kim & Kahle  (2012, p69-84) and Soliman (2011) utilized analytic approach to collect data about marketing in the modern age. Their research affirmed that, social medial creates the best platform for advertising in the modern age.

In the first theme, most sources were from secondary date in form of books, journals, and articles from the existing databases. Overall, most articles presented adequate facts and information concerning marketing in the modern age. Although each author presented his or information different, the fact of the matter is that they agreed to each other at some point. In the second theme, most authors agreed that technology is a crucial tool that cannot be underestimated in improving marketing in the modern age. Most information was collected from surveys, thus making the research more comprehensive. Most authors presented their surveys on the subject. The research was all-inclusive in general and it was able to avail comprehensive data and facts related to marketing in the modern age. In theme three, majority of sources was collected from surveys. Most of the sources reviewed provided comprehensive facts on the importance of technology in increasing communication. Overall, most authors agreed that technology has increased communication at a high rate, thus making it easier for businesses to market their goods and services.

The above literature review implies that technology has provided many benefits of marketing in the modern age. The literature analyzed in this chapter has a number of strengths and weaknesses. Strengths include its coherence and dependability. Most of the articles are scholarly articles and include extensive literature. Most of the researches are supported by many authors thus, making the research deep in content. However, the main weakness of the literature review is that most authors analyzed the existing data but, failed to conduct further research. For instance, while most authors agree that technology has opened many doors in marketing, they fail to mention various social media sites that most organizations use recently and why. To some extent, some articles discussing about marketing were written over 14 years ago, thus not being applicable in contemporary society where technology has advanced at a high rate. The analyzed articles imply that, there is a strong need to conduct more research of marketing in the modern age. Although the analyzed literature review is deep in content, there is a need for authors to conduct thorough research of how marketing in the modern age continues to advance at a high rate because of innovations in technology that occur yearly. There is need to research why most companies embrace technology to market their goods and services. It is also important to mention some of the limitations that emerge when companies advertise their goods and services through internet. This will enable future readers to grasp ideas built on continuously from one year to another.

Conclusion

Overall, the literature review has shown that, the concept of marketing in the modern age has attracted worldwide attention. Most researchers have emerged in the field to outline how technology has improved marketing, thus making businesses to succeed in the operations. Based on the facts and information collected from the literature review, it is evident that each of the themes has presented its information in depth, thus making the research more comprehensive. After compiling the research, this literature evaluated that technology has enhanced a number of benefits in the business. It is crucial to note that, a business cannot succeed without embracing marketing in their business. Marketing is what make businesses to succeed and emerge the best among its competitors. Overall, technology has improved communication and information exchange. Unlike in the past centuries where businesses could market their goods and services via face to face, businesses are now marketing their products via technological tools such social network sites, websites, and Google just to name a few. With this, technology makes it possible for businesses to compete with other businesses both locally and internationally. Through technology, businesses can exchange ideas with other businesses doing well worldwide. With this, it is crucial to note that, there have been advancements on how companies market their products and services. Based on this, businesses are more likely to perform well because they have better and equipped tools to market their products both locally and internationally. In future, this research would recommend most authors to provide examples and evidences of companies have performed well after embracing the recent innovations of technology. Thus far, this research has achieved its purpose of discussing marketing in the modern age.

 

 

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Market Structure and the Role of Government

 

1) Explain the unique characteristics of the four primary market structures.

The four main market structures include perfect competition, monopoly, monopolistic competition and oligopoly. Perfect competition market structure is characterized by large number of sellers and buyers, homogenous products, entry into and out of the market is easy and consumers have full market information (Dewar, 2011). Due to these characteristics, the price of products under perfect competition is determined by the market forces hence individual producers have no control on the prices of products. Under monopoly market structure there is only a single firm that supplies a product in the market where there is no substitute products. The market has high barrier of entry due to a number of factors such as huge capital and exclusive ownership right. In monopolistic competition market, there are many sellers in the market but less than the sellers under perfect competition are. The products are also differentiated under monopolistic competition market structure and the market has relatively low entry and exit barrier of firms in the industry. In oligopoly, there are few sellers of products in the market and strategic interdependence where firms can make their independent decisions.
2) Explain why economic profits are zero in the long run in a monopolistically competitive market.

New firms will be attracted to enter the monopolistic competitive market due to the positive economic profits and low barrier of entry. In the long run, the market will be saturated as a result of entry of new firms. The entry of new firms in the monopolistically competitive market structure will lead to an increase in supply of differentiated products (Boyes & Melvin, 2008). This will cause a shift in demand curve to the left. As the new firms continue to enter the market, the demand curve will continue shifting to the left until it reaches a point where it is tangent to the average total cost. At this point the firm will not be making normal profits hence new firms will not be attracted to enter the market. This is because the profits of firms in the industry will be zero, which is also referred to as economic profit.
3) What are the characteristics of a public good?

Public goods are the goods that can be jointly consumed by all individuals. Public goods have two major characteristics that include no rivalry and no excludability. Public goods have the characteristics of non-rivalry due to the fact that consumption of the public good or service by an individual will not prevent the consumption of a similar good or service by other individuals. Another characteristic of public goods is that they are non-excludable in the sense that it is not possible to provide the good or service to one individual without other individuals also consuming it (Dewar, 2011). This implies that it is not possible to exclude other individuals from consuming a public good. The consumers are also able to obtain the benefits of consuming public goods without necessarily paying for them. The non-excludable characteristics of public goods can lead to the free rider problem where individuals are unwilling to pay for the good if other individuals are not paying for it.
4) Discuss the two ways that product differentiation affects the demand for a product.

Product differentiation can affect the demand for a product in two main ways; persuading and informing consumers. In terms of informing consumers, product differentiation such as advertising and branding can lead to improved information about a product by the consumers. Through product differentiation, consumers are made aware of the prices of the products as well as their availability. Advertisement that focuses on the quality and features of a product provides relatively cheap source of information regarding a particular product to consumers (Folland et al, 2007). This leads to low prices and high quality products. Differentiation can also affect demand through persuasion. Differentiation can help persuade consumers to purchase products. This can be achieved through advertisement that focuses on the benefits of particular products hence enticing consumers to purchase the products. It can also involve providing information regarding the perceived difference of the products with other competing products. Hence, the consumer will be persuaded to purchase the products as a result of product differentiation in the market.
5) Describe at least five different forms of government intervention in the economy.

The government can use various measures to help promote equity and efficiency in the market. Some of the ways that can be used by the government as intervention measures in the economy includes provision of public goods, correcting externalities, levying taxes, implementing antitrust law, operating public enterprises and sponsoring redistribution programs (Dewar, 2011). The provision of public goods involves the provision of essential services to the public such as health intuitions and schools. In correcting the externalities, the government can introduce policies that can ensure the wellbeing of the citizenry and the environment such as imposing heavy tax to firms that pollute the environment. Levying of taxation by government can either discourage or encourage business activity in a country. The implementation of antitrust laws involves the introduction of policies that are intended to promote perfect competition in a market and discourage monopolies. The government can also operate public enterprises such as hospitals and schools hence avoid the exploitation of the public by the private sector. Redistribution programs entail transferring wealth from a given group in society, presumed to be more well of, to another group, which is presumably less fortunate. This aims at ensuring there is a balance in the social structure. One of the methods of implementing redistribution is by introducing higher taxes to those members of society considered to be more well of and lower taxes for the less fortunate or privileged.

References

Boyes, William & Melvin, Michael, (2008). Economics. 7^th ed., Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Company

Dewar, D. M. (2011). Essentials of health economics, Jones and Bartlett Publishers

Folland, S, Goodman, AC, and M. Stano. (2007). The Economics of Health and Health Care, 5th ed.Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall.

Charity Marketing

Word count 5198

 

 

Table of Contents

Abstract 3

Introduction. 4

Scope of the study. 5

The Search Process. 5

Sympathy. 7

Key Lessons. 10

Intrinsic Motivation. 10

Key Lessons. 13

Income Maximization. 14

Key Lessons. 17

Methodology. 17

Conclusion. 18

References. 20

 

Abstract

This literature review provides a comprehensive analysis of charity marketing. Overall, this research shows that charity refers to what people give to alleviate other people’s suffering, need and sorrows, whether they know them or not. Since the inception of religion, mankind has regarded giving as the first and foremost moral obligation. However, this notion has changed over time. People no longer regard giving as an obligation, the reasons for giving of late encompasses guilt, snobbery and self interest. Charities have employed commercial marketing techniques to drive their target audiences towards giving for the plight of the beneficiaries. For instance, charities use images with connotations of human suffering to drive these audiences towards giving. When this audience gives, they do not do so because it is an act of generosity, but because they want to shed off the guilt. This review examines the underlying ethical issues relating to charity appeals and their impacts in three themes that relate to each other.

 

 

Charity Marketing

Introduction

Most of the literature on charity marketing concentrates on the psychological aspects that may interfere with the audience’s pro-social reactions to charity appeals. A good example of this literature is those that examine that effectiveness of charity marketing in promoting different issues (Bagozzi & Moore, 1994). Furthermore, there are those that examine the importance of social desirability factors, when coming up with the content of charity fundraising campaigns (Louie & Obermiller, 2000). Another different area of research explores diverse marketing techniques (Basil, Ridgeway & Basil, 2008). More recent work focuses on the use of images portraying human suffering in fundraising campaigns (e.g. Burt & Strongman, 2005; Sciulli, Bhagat & Bebko, 2012). From a general perspective, this review will focus on the ethics and impacts of charity appeals. The first theme shall examine the unethical issues surrounding the use of images connoting human suffering in charity appeals. The second theme points income maximization as the main motivation factor behind fundraising campaigns. The last theme underscores the notion that these appeals have a preference for eliciting sympathy rather than arousing empathy.

This research undertakes a search of terms related to ethics and impact of charity appeals using several academic literature databases and using the snowball method. The initial result of this search is composed of a large number of irrelevant references that related to guilt appeals, fear appeals and cause related marketing. There was also lots of irrelevant literature on comparative ethics under the context of human rights. The search terms, academic databases and limiters to be searched were identified through a combination of preliminary scoping of literature and brainstorming technique. The strategies employed in the literature search entailed a systematic search of selected academic literature databases and “snowball” technique. These search criteria identified 534 references. Following the application of the search criteria to these references, 86 references remained. Besides, “snowball” technique and citation tracking identified 9 relevant references.  Formal content analysis and scoping followed this process.

 

Scope of the study

To Louie & Obermiller (2000), charity marketing is different from corporate giving or philanthropy since it is a form of marketing that entails relationship. Furthermore, it is not tax deductible like philanthropy. This research shows that, charity marketing has been there since time immemorial, but the most common case that is documented was in 1974, when John Carr started a foundation ‘The Foundation for Charitable Giving’. Historically, Chaib & Selander (2011) postulated that, this foundation focused on giving back to the community. Carr engaged in business and charity so that he could support the two ventures. The businesses had to give back some type of referral amount on what is paid for marketing. This money was then redirected back to charity. In the 21^st century, charity marketing is a major marketing tool that most corporations are banking on. Recent studies have shown that most people switch from one type of brand to another related product that is associated with charity or good cause (Basil et al, 2008).

The Search Process

	Table 1: Search Terms Used In the Academic Search Database

 

 

 

1	Charity marketing
2	Charity appeals
3	Charity advertisement
4	Fear appeals
5	Guilt appeal
6	Cause related marketing
7	Ethics and impacts of charity appeals
8	Ethical issues in charity marketing

 

This research undertook to search for search terms indicated in Table 1 on electronic academic marketing literature databases.  A good example of electronic database that proved useful was Google scholar and Palgrave Macmillan journal. These databases were also searched for reviews of ethical issues in charity marketing. The identified references were downloaded into reference management software known as Endnote X2. Truncation of the search terms made it possible to search of plurals and other suffixes. For instance, “appeal$” captured”appeal” and “appeals”. Furthermore, Boolean terms such as “OR” and “AND” were used to locate references that had a combination of search terms. Where possible, the limiter “charity’ was applied to academic literature database resources. A utilization of some of the tools in these databases enabled a comprehensive literature search.More references were located using “snowball” technique and citation tracking. This process entailed searching for the right references located through other literature. This did not entail a systematic search of academic literature references. The obtained references were downloaded into Endnote X2 for further analysis. This research adopted a five phase review process of the literature identified. The first phase entailed an identification of the review parameters. The parameters identified were in tandem with the requirements of Statewide Quality Branch. The second phase entailed the search for literature on ethics and impacts of charity appeals. Phase three entailed screening the literature for relevant references. The literatures that were examined the ethics and impact of charity appeals succeeded to the next phase. However, the literature that seemed irrelevant and not pertinent to this review was excluded.

Phase four entailed a review of the resulting literature. The selected literature focused on ethics and impact of charity appeals. Furthermore, abstracts of each of these literatures were selected and subjected to data mining and reviewed using two others.  Phase five entailed an analysis of phase five while phase six entailed report writing. Leximancer 3.0 was used to subject all the selected abstracts that met the inclusion criteria (N=535) to content analysis. Leximancer 3.0 is a software program that identifies the main themes and context in the text, the association between them and the strength of those associations. It presents data as a visual map and as a ranked list of themes and concepts. Dots are used to represent the concepts in this map. The distance between the dots shows the strength of association between the concepts.

 

Themes

Sympathy

According to Chaib & Selander (2011), it is through the media that charities settle and establish the distance between the distant sufferer and potential of companion and action. This means that it is through the media that these charities post the advertisements connoting the needs of the beneficiary with a target of getting the attention of the donor as argued by Liddiard and Hutson (1995). However, according to Breeze and Dean (2012), a charity advert should arouse empathy among the target audience and not sympathy. While interviewing a group of young people, Breeze and Dean established that most charities just put up the sad picture with an aim of making the audience feel sorry for the beneficiaries. Furthermore, it was evident that the degree of pathos in these images often causes widespread irritation.

In a different research, Basil et al (2008) also established that sympathy arousing tactics neither addresses the underlying structural factors involved in the problem, nor educate the public about the cause and the consequences of the social problem.  Anna, one of the interviewers, further reiterates this fact when she points that for a majority of people a picture of a young kid looking sad or an old man freezing to death does not play on people’s heartstrings. She does not think people will do something about the issues, even after seeing them. According to Liddiard and Hutson (1995), charities should use proper images representing the real needs of the people. When the adverts depict more ‘normal people’ they are bound to generate ‘better’ philanthropic motives unlike the guilt relieving sympathy payments.  Take an example of homeless people, instead of using the most pitiful images, charities should use proper pictures of homeless people since there are different ways of being homeless.  This research unveils that there are many facets of a problem. The beneficiaries might be homeless, but there are different facets of homeless.

According to Silverson (2007), these adverts do not motivate donors to give. Rather, it makes them feel guilty to the extent that they have to do it. According to the focus group that Silverson interviewed, these adverts should make the donors feel like they want to help. It should not force money out of their pockets in the name of relieving themselves from guilt. Furthermore, Small & Verochi (2009) assert that most of these advertisements showcase human suffering with an aim of generating feelings of compassion and pity.

The research conducted by Vaux (2001) was similar to that of Breeze and Dean (2012) who postulated that the fact that charity appeals use images that elicits sympathy and not empathy among the target audiences. While interviewing five focus groups in England on their views on the images of homelessness, this research outlined that a major campaign aimed at raising money to support homelessness services across England and beyond.

These focus groups were composed entirely of young homeless people who understood the issues involved with homelessness. Furthermore, these groups understood the issues involved with homelessness and the perceptions of people like themselves that exist in the public and in the awareness of the potential donors.  Apart from pointing that the goal of fundraising through charity appeals is to maximize revenues, these groups also underscored that the imagery used arouses sympathy rather than empathy. However, Sargeant & Woodliffe (2007 and Basil et al (2008), while examining the reason for the use of images of suffering in charity appeals pointed that charities have no choice owing to the unique nature of their market. Since their advertisements are supposed to generate action on the behalf of the sufferers, the images have to manipulate the audience’s internal emotions. This generates responsibility and feelings of sympathy and compassion that is important if the audience is to support the sufferers (Sargeant & Woodliffe, 2007).

Tester (2001, p. 32) reveal that most charities use images of particulars sufferers since they have a longstanding awareness of the effectiveness of these images in getting the audience’s attention. He further points that spectators may feel more inclined to donate when particular sufferers are presented because the donation is a form of pro-social behaviour and the media constitute both physical and social approximation (Chaib & Selander, 2011). This is an indication that the charities are taking advantage of the emotions of the donors which in essence is unethical as supported by Sargeant & Woodliffe (2007)

That these images have their ideal victims make them centred towards eliciting emotions. An ‘ideal victim’ is a category of individuals or a person who is given the complete and legitimate label of being a victim when crime hits them. Homer & Batra (2004, p517) note from a general perspective that children, mothers and the elderly are the ideal victims of these appeals compared to men. Unlike men, these categories of people are bound to be sympathetic and compassionate when they see the images. According to Chouliaraki (2010, p111), the purpose for using these images is to make the viewers a witness of the horror of suffering. Having made them witnesses, it is obvious that they are bound to respond in a manner to stop it. This assertion is in line with that of Sargeant & Woodliffe (2007), who point that people tend to adjust their behaviour to daunt a threat of an adverse future social alteration. This means that people are bound to support the cause of the charities.

Although Cohen (2001) applauses the use of positive images, he points that the negative image, dehumanizing the sufferer, is most responsible for causing sentiments of compassion fatigue to the audience. Most audiences loathe such horrific scenes that every time they see them they face aside (Sargeant & Woodliffe, 2007). No wonder it is important to use images that arouse empathy than those that arouse sympathy. On the other hand, Chang & Lee (2009) point that these images are still the most effective in appealing for imperative action despite the criticisms being levelled against them. As much as this might be true, it is important to note that trends are changing. Most of the audience loathe that which levies guilt on them. This necessitates the use of images that arouse empathy and not sympathy.

Key Lessons

In essence, most authors from the ongoing discussion affirm that most organizations have used sympathy in charity marketing. The major concern about most advertisements is the fact that they have a preference for eliciting sympathy thus attracting a wide number of audiences. By utilizing this strategy, most organizations have a chance to convert first time clients to potential and frequent clients.

 

Intrinsic Motivation

            Chouliaraki (2006) argues that it is through the media that charities settle and establish the distance between the distant sufferer and potential of companion and action. This means that it is through the media that these charities post the advertisements connoting the needs of the beneficiary with a target of getting the attention of the donor. Charities often use images connoting human suffering as a bait to get audience. On the other hand, according to Small & Verrochi (2009), the norm in charity appeals is the use of particular images of suffering to generate feelings of compassion and pity among the target audience. That this image tells an accurate story is still under contestation. Even if the story is accurate, it can still be interpreted in a wrong manner. This is an indication that these images are open to interpretation. According to Paech (2004), marketing demands the highest standards of ethical awareness. As much as charities should show the world what the many people who are in need, it is important to do that without the intention to shock. Ethical standards require charities to show realities as much as possible so as not to harm the very individuals that they are trying to help. However, this is not the case. Stoddart (2004) in an interview in London pointed that most charities often go to extremes. There is no time for them to play fair. They are only interested in the moment of death since it is such moments that maximize their revenue.

Howard (2000) warns of the serious repercussions that beneficiaries often undergo especially when the photographers taking photos for the charity fails the accountability test. While on an assignment in an Afghan refugee camp, a photojournalist ignored the warning from a UNHCR press officer of the inappropriateness of showing young Afghan girls. He went further and snatched the photo of a girl while she was bathing in a river. Later, the photo appeared on the cover of a top newspaper, with the name of the girl under the caption. When the Mujahedeen saw this photo they slew the girl for having caused a disgrace to Islam. Not even a million apologies from the charity behind this photo could undo the damage of this irresponsible reporting. According to Taylor (1988), negative images have portrayed Africa as a doomed continent. To make matters worse, it has reinforced colonial stereotypes. On the other hand, the positive images made viewers to assume that help has reached the beneficiaries. These images are synonymous to goods produced in one part of the world and sold in another part of the world. Das et al. (2003) cites the absence of political action while charities manipulate the images that frame suffering for news production and fundraising. According to him, this lack of political action is a pointer that the Western nations tend to view the beneficiaries as less civilized. This is because they will go to all ends to ensure equality in their nations, yet do nothing those outside their democracies. No wonder the plight of these nations have been left to charities and mass media whose ulterior motive seems not to be in sync with the motive of the beneficiaries.

According to Bagozzi & Moore (1994), hypothesize those public service advertisements designed to reduce the cases of child abuse often fail to attract help because they stimulate negative emotions. These authors build this assertion on Lazarus’s general theory of emotions and adaptation whose sole aim is to examine the effects of public service advertisements on helping responses. They point that such advertisements often lead to emphatic reactions, making them ineffective. This research confirms that images containing human suffering do not necessarily lead to positive results. To Chang and Lee (2009), most charity organizations start to expand their outreach and marketing programs during holiday seasons. According to charities, holidays are seasons of giving. Thus, they need an effective marketing strategy if they are going to reap the most out of that season. In a different research, Homer & Batra (1994) continue to argue that an important element of charity marketing is that it creates goodwill on corporate goods and services. Therefore, this establishes a positive response and more consumers will want to be associated with the brand. It also helps in gaining exposure for the business. This is done by leveraging the current audience. After conducting a comprehensive research, Paech (2004) gave out his different views regarding this subject. Unlike Homer & Batra (1994), Paech (2004) argued that charity marketing also helps in the trading on recognizing another brand label that is charity by itself. The charitable activities give the corporate or organization something new for publicity. This will be in the press release or it could be in the social media. In the long run positive feedback will be received and may turn into increased traffic to the corporate websites or purchase of the brands.

Organizations can also utilize intrinsic motivation during sponsor or charitable events (Burnett, 1986). According to Burnett, this is the most efficient strategy in charity marketing. It entails having tablecloths or anything that is associated with your brand. Moreover, Vaux (2001) believes that having the corporate name on the list of the sponsors is a good way of brand recognition. If the brand is related to with the event, Vaux believes that it greatly helps to market the corporate goods and services. Conversely, Howard (2000) believes that the corporation should look for a charity in the community that it thinks it can make a product for them. This should be something that the charity could sell. Also, it could be something that you can sell on their behalf. But care should be taken to make sure all details are first cleared by the charity.

Other studies show that an organization can foster good relationships by getting their brand into the community (Colin, 2002). Also, Howard (2000) believes that this can be done by creating a team that consists of the employees and some loyal consumers or customers. The team will then participate in some fundraising activity or engage in some race. During this period they will have some good time and at the same time they will be wearing custom T-shirts or overall. These custom wear advertise their business in the process. The group can also partner with a charity. But by doing so, the group should be aware of all laws concerning charities and taxation.

Key Lessons

Overall, most authors from the ongoing discussion agree that charities can partner with a national organization or a local charity and then ask the invited guests when they check out if they’ll be willing to contribute an additional amount to a cause. This has great benefit to their business because it will help consumers associate their business with philanthropy. It will also help them to be mentioned in the press that their business helped to raise a certain amount to the charity.

Income Maximization

Income maximization is the priority of most charity organizations. This can be looked at the response they generate and income they receive. According to Debrix, & Weber, (2003) the black body is mostly viewed in a social stereotyping way in charity. He argued that images that depicted black African children were associated with poverty and famine. Most charities use these images so that they create sympathy hence more income. According to Perlmutter (1998), the images that usually report about a disaster situation often use metonymy. This is where a single characteristic is usually used to employ a complex identity. He argued that images of emaciated children were used as a very powerful form of visual framing. It depicted the collection of African problems. This catches the donors’ attention. Goldberg & Solomos (2002) and Malkki did a study on European refugees. He noted that in Europe most people had never seen refugees in their continent. They had witnessed the Rwandan genocide. So when the media in collaboration with some charities went to focus on their appeal the response was great. More donations were sent but it created some debate about race issues. Some argued that there were some double standards.

According to Vaux (2001), snobbery, guilt and self-interest are major reasons for charitable giving today. She argued at the earlier priorities of most charities. Religion had played a significant role in that people believed that giving was an obligation. Morals boosted the amount people and donors donated. People donate today since they have the perception that they will need it in the future. They donate without questioning the conduct of the charities. During terror threats this is mostly influenced by the media.  This necessitated most charities to cash in on this to get more income appeals (Howard, 2000).

Some charities are so determined to get more income that they resort to some form of falsehood. According to Colin (2002), he published some collection of pictures that photographers had used. One such photo was apparently taken in Red Sea Hills during the famine in Sudan. A child was made to sit on the sand and his photo taken to be used for appeal. He argues that UNICEF used that image for advertising purpose. The perception that Africans are helpless and with that type of image evoke serious emotions that people in western countries will donate more. Some charities resort to download some images from the internet that had been taken by photojournalists. These images do not correlate to the current situation and thus they may be appealing but they lie to the public.

According to Howard (2000) sometimes the charities use real images but wrong caption. They do so intentionally to create a debate and outcry. This tends to create more publicity and extensive coverage. This in the long run translates to more donations. An example was in Afghanistan where a photo of a little girl bathing in the river was used. It turned tragic when the Taliban extremists executed her saying she was a disgrace to their religion. Some charity cash in on a photo that was solely for the media. Maren (2002) focused on the scenario where a charity organization used the photo of a starving girl with a vulture waiting. The image was taken by Carter in Sudan and the charity organization didn’t have any operations in Sudan at that time. They simply used that image for advertising knowing well that they will get more donations. The image was used knowing well they didn’t provide relief aid that would have otherwise saved the child used as the icon.

According to Das et al. (2003) the consumption of suffering reiterates that our civilization is developed. He argued that charities tend to use anonymous images that act as tools for generating compassion for the suffering. They manipulate the public to believe what they see translating to more income. On the other hand, Small & Verrochi (2009) argued that most photographers win prizes and awards by showing human misery. At the same time charities depend on human suffering as a means for them to generate funds. It raises the question whether our generosity is becoming a syndrome referred as compassion fatigue or donor apathy.

The images used by charities also tend to make the donors to be judgmental of the beneficiaries (Platt, 1999).  An example is the case of homelessness in the UK where the donors tend to respond to beneficiary as victim that is deserving and unwilling. According to Rosenthal (2000) the beneficiaries are looked down upon as the situation they are in is on their wish. Some charities therefore use some photos of people sleeping in the subway or collecting trash at dustbins. As pointed by Breeze & Dean (2012), it became clear that most charities want to maximize income. Some therefore go extreme measures to achieve this goal. For this reason some beneficiaries lose their dignity and some end up losing their lives. An example is the case of the Afghan girl whose photo was used and was murdered by Taliban extremists.  Images that depict suffering should be used with care. At the end of the day everyone deserves some respect and dignity (Rosenthal, 2000).

A research by Breeze & Dean (2012) show that, charity marketing should exercise ethics in business. Images have shown that they are very powerful and it can’t be measured by words. Their sole reason is to empower and educate people. Images from disaster environments such as famine, war or natural calamity have some deep economic and political value as further noted by Burnett (1986). These images are to express communication, but in most cases, they are usually abused. They end up being used as propaganda tools if handled in a wrong way by self-interested organizations and charities (Chouliaraki, 2010). Charities should therefore have some education roles and re-evaluate their representational ways. In as much as they will want to gain more income to help the underprivileged they should change the approach. This will help in reducing the stereotypes that exist. A better informed public will be able to relate well with known people and can at the end actively engage in global affairs. This can help in solving some problems that relate to dependence.

Key Lessons

Overall, most authors agree that, advertising helps most charities to create awareness about their causes and in the end win some financial support. They elicit some reactions from the public. The public is mostly made up of donor groups that are of different age group and gender. Typically, most authors agree that the images that facilitate emergency appeals are usually chosen so as to create a response from the citizenry. Charity reporting helps boost the income by associating with multinationals and since it is big brands they will tend to donate more. In this way the corporations will tend to influence its customers or employees to donate more. This is to help them retain their image and in the process more income for the charities.

Donor’s gender sometimes plays a major role in the amount that is contributed. According to CAF & NCVO (2003), women in the UK donated more. The average amount contributed by women was far much than that of men. For this reason most charities exploit this observation. However, some writers believe that most charities therefore use images of lone children or mother with a young child suffering to appeal for aid. These types of images tend to create some empathy among the women. They mostly feel a sense of motherhood and will do everything in their capacity to make sure that they contribute. Some authors argue that this observation is stereotyping of the gender.

Methodology

The methodology of the study involved a qualitative approach associated with the social constructivist paradigm that emphasizes the nature of charity marketing. Basically, most researchers in the first theme were interested in compiling rich and complex information about the subject. Most authors developed theories and pattern to base the data they collected. Data collection was conducting in several stages. Most researchers observed a set number of corporate that used charity marketing. After conducting their research and collecting their data, most authors articulated that sympathy is a common strategy used in charity marketing.  Most importantly, most researchers in the first theme were able to compile adequate facts and information from the field thus making the study more cohesive. Overall, the research was deep in content.

            In the second theme, which revolves around intrinsic motivation most authors relied on the existing data from the literature review. Analyzing the existing data created massive insights on how most organizations utilize intrinsic motivation in charity marketing. However, few authors such as Homer & Batra (1994), Paech (2004) collected their information from survey. After conducting their research, the three authors believed that charity marketing helps in the trading and recognizing the brand. The surveys made by the authors in theme two helped to obtain how organizations adopt intrinsic motivation in charity marketing.

In the third theme, most authors utilized case studies to compile their research on income maximization. For instance, Malkki (1997) examined the disaster situation that was witnessed in Ethiopia and Sudan during the famine of 1960s and early 1970s. The images used depicted masses of hungry people. They were staring at the reporters in sympathetic face. Also during that period some charities used some photos of black bodies lining up waiting for food donations. This created a worldwide outcry and the international community had to step in by sending more donations.

  Conclusion

This review focuses on the ethics and impacts of charity appeals. The first theme underscores the notion that these appeals have a preference for eliciting sympathy rather than arousing empathy. The second theme examines the unethical issues surrounding the use of images connoting human suffering in charity appeals. Most of these images send a message that the beneficiaries are too stupid and ignorant to take care of themselves. Furthermore, the images point that should the donor’s fail to help the beneficiaries then they are doomed since their governments and parents are not responsible enough to help them (Perlmutter 1998, p. 25). No wonder Jerry Michaud of the End Hunger Network in a letter to Save the Children Fund (SCF) described their advertisement campaign as a form of “hunger form”. The last theme points income maximization as the main motivation factor behind fundraising campaigns. To Das, Kleinman & Lock (2003), charities should redirect the eyes of the public and show us the truth and positive images. This will enable us to view the world in a different approach. The beneficiaries should also be given a platform to give their stories from their own perspective. This will make us understand the situation better. The relevant laws in the respective countries of the charities should be followed (Colin, 2002). Also the global rules set by the United Nations should be adhered by all charities. By doing so, everyone will be able to work well without any exploitation in the process.

 

 

 

 

References

Bagozzi, R. P., & Moore, D. J. (1994). Public Service Advertisements: Emotions and Empathy Guide Prosocial Behavior. Journal of Marketing. 58, 56.

Basil, D. Z., Ridgway, N. M., & Basil, M. D. (2008). Guilt and giving: A process model of empathy and efficacy. Psychology & Marketing. 25, 1-23.

Breeze, B., & Dean, J. (2012). Pictures of me: user views on their representation in homelessness fundraising appeals. International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing. 17, 132-143.

Breeze, B., & Dean, J. (2012). User views of fundraising. Centre for charitable giving and philanthropy. 17, 132-143.

Burnett, K. (1986). Advertising by charities: a practical guide to raising money by press advertising, direct mail, posters, radio and television appeals and telephone selling. London, Directory of Social Changes.

Chaib, M., Danermark, B., & Selander, S. (2011). Education, professionalization and social representations: on the transformation of social knowledge. New York, Routledge.

Chang, C. T., and Lee, Y. K. (2009) Framing charity advertising: Influences of message framing, image valence, and temporal framing on a charitable appeal, Journal of Applied Social Psychology 39: 2910–2935.

Charities Aid Foundation (CAF) and the National Council for Voluntary Organisations (NCVO). (2003). Inside Research – Charitable giving in 2002, Issue 19.

Chouliaraki, L. (2010) Post-humanitarianism: Humanitarian communication beyond a Politics of Pity, International Journal of Cultural Studies 13(2): 107-126.

Chouliaraki, L. (2006). The spectatorship of suffering, London: Sage.

Cohen, S., and Seu, B. (2002) Knowing enough not to feel too much: Emotional thinking about human rights appeals, in M.P. Bradley and P. Petro (eds.) Truth claims: Representation and human rights (pp. 187–201), New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

Colin, J. (2002). Underexposed: Pictures of the 20^thCentury they didn’t want you to see. London: Vision

Das, V., Kleinman, A., & Lock, M. M. (2003). Social suffering. Berkeley [u.a.], University of California Press.

Debrix, F., & Weber, C. (2003). Rituals of mediation: international politics and social meaning. Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press.

Goldberg, D. T., & Solomos, J. (2002). A companion to racial and ethnic studies. Malden, Mass, Blackwell.

Homer, P. M., & Batra, R. (1994). Attitudinal Effects of Character-Based Versus Competence-Based Negative Political Communications. Journal of Consumer Psychology. 3, 163-185.

Howard, D. (2000). ‘Accountability in the Media’. Forced Migration Review, December, vol. 9, p. 37

Hutson, S., & Liddiard, M. (1995). Youth homelessness: the construction of a social issue. Houndmills [u.a.], Macmillan.

Malkki, L. H. (1997). Speechless emissaries: refugees, humanitarianism, and dehistoricization. Siting Culture. 223-254.

Maren, M. (2002). The road to hell: the ravaging effects of foreign aid and international charity. New York, Free Press.

Paech, M. (2004). A Photograph is worth more than a Thousand Words – The Impact of Photojournalism on Charitable Giving. Dissertation. University of London

Perlmutter, D. D. (1998). Photojournalism and foreign policy: Icons of outrage in international crises. Westport, Conn, Praeger.

Platt, S. (1999). ‘Home truths: media representations of homelessness’, in B Franklin (ed) Social Policy, The Media and Misrepresentation London: Routledge.

Rosenthal, R. (2000). Imaging Homelessness and Homeless People: Visions and Strategies Within the Movement(s). Journal of Social Distress and the Homeless. 9, 111-126

Sargeant, A., and Woodliffe, L. (2007) Gift giving: An interdisciplinary review, International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing 12(4): 257-307.

Silverstone, R. (2007) Media and morality: On the rise of the Mediapolis, Cambridge: Polity.

Small, D., and Verrochi, N. (2009) The face of need: Facial emotion expression on charity advertisements, Journal of Marketing Research 46(6): 777-787.

Stoddart, T. (2004).Personal Communication, London.

Taylor, J. (1998). Body horror: photojournalism, catastrophe, and war. New York, New York University Press.

Tester, K. (2001). Compassion, Morality, and The Media. Buckingham, Open University.

Vaux, A. (2001). The selfish altruist: relief work in famine and war. Sterling, VA, Earthscan.

Intersection of Faith and Collegiate Goals

I have had a passion for the arts since I was a little child. I have always held the view that given the opportunity, I would excel at them in a college of repute. This college is one of the best in the country and a place where my dreams will be realized. I want to be the best here in order to help others who will want to base their careers in the arts.

I was brought up in a strong Christian background. With this in mind, I have always felt that I have a spiritual duty to conduct myself in a manner that embodies the spirit of Christ. I strongly believe that I am an instrument through which the message of the gospel can be passed on to others bringing them closer to the promise of eternal life. As an ambassador of Christ, I feel that I have a duty to empower others who have the desire to follow a faith-based lifestyle in their chosen career paths. One of the ways that I envision fulfilling this noble mission is through giving encouragement talks to pupils in high school in order to set them on a course that will enhance their faith in the future.

The various forums in the college that allow for Christians and non-Christians to dialogue about faith and arts are an attraction for me. I have always had the desire to be a part of artists’ forums that consider vocations in a contemporary context and thereby broaden faith-based discussions. I want to be a contributor to a broader Christian academic discourse in order to improve the institution, others and myself (Razor’s Edge, 2014).

I want to be of help to the community around me and I feel that one way I can achieve this is by successfully completing my college studies so that I can add on to the pool of knowledge in that community. As I plan to be an excellent student, I feel that the background of this college and its achievements will help mould me into a better person. Therefore, through the opportunity given to me, I believe that others will benefit.

 

 

References

Razor’s Edge (2014). At the Intersection of Art and Faith. Biola University. Retrieved 5 Feb., 2014 from http://www.biola.edu/academics/undergrad/art/razor-edge/

 

Workplace Communication, Involvement and Participation

Introduction

The ideal situation of any workplace is the seamless relationship between employer and the employees. For this to be achieved there must be effective communication between both parties. Communication fosters employee participation and involvement. Employee participation entails “exerting a countervailing and upward pressure on management” (Hyman & Mason, 1995). It is a process through which employees are given the opportunity to influence decisions and at times be actively involved in making decisions in matters that affect them. This process comes from the inherent rights of employees in influencing matters in the workplace as a form of workplace democracy (Cloke, 2002)). Employee involvement on the other hand is a lighter form of participation that is much more flexible and involves a common ground between employees and employers with similar interests. Involvement is “a range of processes designed to engage the support, understanding and optimum contribution of all employees in an organization and their commitment to its objectives” (Potterfield, 1999). There is a difference between employee participation and involvement. Participation is much more pluralist and moves from a scale of total employee control to no involvement at all (Picardi, 2001). Thus, it may be expressed in terms of: worker directors, work councils, joint consultative committees, employee share schemes, and collective bargaining. On the other hand, involvement is much more individualistic and entails the conformance to organizational objectives at the behest of management control (Sturdy, 2001). Both of these concepts require upward and downward forms of communication to be achieved.

Electronic communication

Electronic means of communication are very popular in the business environment today. There are different methods that are entailed in the media including emails, videos, webcasts, webinars, podcasts, the telephone and teleconferencing. The use of electronic media can be important in reaching a singular or multiple audiences. The major advantage of this type of communication is that the information is quickly sent and received (Whittaker & Bradner, 2000). Once the recipient has gotten the message, then he/she can immediately give feedback. The other advantage of using electronic media is that the parties in the communication do not have to be in the same physical location. This means that individuals can work from their comfort zones and can transmit any information they have promptly through any of these media. Additionally, the use of this media eliminates time constraints. They can be used at any time of day or period of year so long as there is consensus between the parties. Global businesses particularly benefit from these media as people can work comfortably in their different time zones thus eliminating the need for travel.

Electronic communication allows for prompt exchanges between employers and employees where messages sent can get immediate feedback. This makes it possible for both parties are appraised on the current situations in the workplace. Teleconferencing, for example, allows for a simultaneous exchange between two or more parties regardless of their location around the globe (Lau et al, 2001). This means that where one party has an input that he/she feels is pertinent for the business, sharing is prompt and the reaction from all others can be immediately gauged. Another medium like webcasts allow for messages and/or large files to be sent to multiple parties promptly over the internet.

Most businesses have realized the importance of involving employees at multiple decision-making levels. This has led to the formation of numerous platforms where employees can place their inputs. The traditional phrase used for employers who were receptive to the opinions or complaints of their workers was ‘keeping an open door policy’. This concept is still in use today but has shifted from the literal meaning to a more advanced mode where managers or business executives receive the inputs of employees at any time on electronic media. Although this method has been successful in multiple scenarios, there are still businesses that have not yet embraced it. In tapping the ideas that employees might have, it is important to recognize their limitations. There are people who are naturally shy and who cannot openly share their ideas for fear of rejection. There are also those that are not as fast in their thought processes meaning that they may not have an idea until after a forum like a brainstorming session is over. In order to tap the potentials of these employees, electronic platforms come in handy. Employees can anonymously send their opinions, objections or simply thoughts about a given topic in the workplace at any time.

In teleconferences where only one speaker takes control of meetings and where the opinion of some of the attendees is required but is not forthcoming due to one reason or the other, some web software has been developed where contributions can be sent at the click of a button. Today, the global workplace is larger than the traditional one where people can be working together but may be miles apart. In such scenarios, there may be need for polls or elections or other activities that may require workmates to take a stand or favor a choice of opinions. In order to ensure that the choices are secret, electronic communication has developed software that makes anonymous contributions to the system instantly when prompted by a user. This ensures that all employees participate in the exercises without fear of reprisal. This stimulates employee involvement over the long term.

Another avenue through which electronic media allows for employees to be involved in the organization is through participation in online training programs. Instead of the training materials being availed to select groups of people in limited times and locations, electronic disbursement ensures that all employees get the materials aimed at improving their productivity. Where questions abound, online interactive forums can be used to promptly answer them.

Verbal communication

Oral communication is an integral part of communication in promoting employee participation and involvement. This is the most common way used to communicate in many workplaces. The spoken word has the advantage of directly making a point to a person where immediate clarification can be sought to ensure that both parties in the exchange are on the same page. In many communication media, the message is usually distorted after leaving the sender and before reaching the receiver (Tourish & Robson, 2006). Meaning is lost in translation and the transmitter’s own biases may come into the fore distorting the original message of the communication. Verbal communication ensures that there is no loss in the meaning of communications. In some forms, like face-to-face communication, both parties can also pick the nature of the message not only from the way the words are communicated but also in body language (Dumbrava & Koronka, 2009). This mode of communication is especially important where there is need for immediate feedback. However, the limitation of feedback given is dependent on the size of the audience.

Another important form of verbal communication is through the use of the telephone. The use of mobile phones has made communication easy and convenient. Feedback can also be promptly given in this type of communication. The use of verbal communication is one of the basic forms of human communication. It is therefore important in ensuring that there are desired levels of employee participation and involvement. When people are given the opportunity to directly express their opinions especially to people they consider their superiors, then they are motivated to work harder as they feel appreciated. It is therefore prudent that people in positions of responsibility in the work place come up with platforms where employee opinions are readily sought and considered. Most businesses, for example, have brainstorming sessions regularly in order to assess the organizational strengths and also debate on ways of improving performance. These sessions usually only include department heads as including everyone in the workplace may be counterproductive as not every person will have their opinions heard. Therefore, heads must have mini forums in their respective department to ensure that all employees are given the opportunities to express their opinions or air their disagreements or concerns. As a matter of business principle, supervisors, managers, heads of departments and other people in positions of responsibility must acknowledge the importance of enabling their employees to be more involved in the business as this is the ultimate ingredient for having a better working environment that fosters chemistry and in turn productivity (Houmanfar & Johnson, 2003).

Leaders must also be knowledgeable in the manner in which they communicate the inputs of others to their colleagues. If an employee generates an idea that is eventually implemented to the success of the company, then such employees must be rewarded in the full glare of others in order to foster participation. Communication, preferable, verbal in a general meeting will generate the right impetus for others to work harder in order to be awarded similar accolades. The advantage of verbal communication is that it is an ongoing process where there is a constant back and forth between two parties thus ensuring that a given topic is exhaustively discussed (Gerson & Gerson, 2007).

Paper-based communication

The world is constantly evolving with new problems arising. Presently, the major concern for businesses is their carbon footprints that directly contribute to global warming and pollution. One of the most popular forms of communication is ranked as being a contributor to environmental degradation. This is paper-based communication which has led to the cutting down of many trees in order to produce paper. Nonetheless, this mode of communication is still very popular although its popularity has been eroded by electronic communication. Businesses still find it prudent to communicate their most serious information through formal letters. The necessity of using paper-based communications arises where one party feels that his/her thoughts need to be uninterruptedly expressed especially where physical evidence of the communication is required (Ludden, 2007). Formal letters have been used to inform employees of: promotions, demotions, dismissal, discipline, transfer, wage increments and so on. In many cases, employees write formal letters to their bosses in order to complain about conditions of work, disagreements with others, discomfort, resignation or any urgent occurrences that may warrant unscheduled excusal from work. While some of these issues may be conveyed via electronic media or even by word of mouth, the necessity of having physical evidence warrants this kind of medium (Sinickas, 2001).

Formal letters convey a certain degree of seriousness in the matter being ventilated. A worker who receives a formal letter informing him/her about his/her promotion may change an aspect of themselves in order to reflect the new status. Communication of a promotion in a verbal form in front of peers may be effective as others will be made aware of the change in status but may not adequately motivate the specific employee to change his conduct. However, if such communication is given in form of a formal letter where the employee has to agree to certain terms and append his/her signature, then there is a transformation in that employee. He/she will feel much more senior and will feel that his/her involvement and participation in the company is valued. This is not an isolated case as all formal communication through letters is taken far more seriously and stimulates transformations in the concerned parties.

Just like in all other forms of communication, leaders must be tactful in order to ensure that the use of written communications is as effective as it can be (Eunson, 2007). Other forms of written communications that are also important in the workplace include memos, posters, reports, minutes and handouts. Reports and handouts can be avenues through which businesses can foster employee participation and involvement. This is because these forms of communications usually require a review in order to ensure that the information contained therein is accurate. Employees with certain responsibilities are required to provide written submissions of the progress they have made in their various tasks. These submissions may be made daily or may be after set period of time. These communication modes create avenues through which fruitful exchanges between employers and employees can be made. Here, employees communicate their competence and indispensability to businesses by ensuring that they meet the set targets or even exceed them. It is important to note that reports usually indicate the progress made in a business meaning that if they are not favorable, affected employees appear lax. Therefore, where a report is required, employees will work extra hard to ensure that they meet set targets.

Conclusion

Employers desire a workplace where there is participation and involvement of all employees. Human resources are still the most valuable resources in any business and maximizing them guarantees competitive advantage (Wynne, 1993). In order to stimulate employee participation and involvement, there must be effective communication between all levels of the business. Therefore, horizontal, upward and downward communication must be monitored in order to ensure that employees’ hearts and minds are tapped into those of the organization for maximum benefits. The three types of communication media discussed – electronic media, verbal media and paper-based media – have distinct advantages that they bring into the organization in ensuring that employees are motivated to participate in organizational decision making. The three types of communication should be crafted in a way that they allow for maximum participation regardless of location, time, level or responsibility. Each level of the business hierarchy should be tapped into all the communication media to ensure that they allow and promote workplace participation and involvement.

 

References

Cloke, K. (2002). The end of management and the rise of organizational democracy. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass

Dumbrava, G. & Koronka, A. (2009). Actions speak louder than words – Body language in business communication. Annals of the University of Petrosani in Economics, 9(3), 249-254.

Eunson, B. (2007). Communication in the workplace. Milton: Wiley

Gerson, S.J. & Gerson, S.M. (2007). Workplace communication : process and product. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall

Houmanfar, R. & Johnson, R. (2003). Organizational implications. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 23(2/3), 117-138.

Hyman, J. & Mason, B. (1995). Managing employee involvement and participation. London: Sage

Lau, T. et al. (2001). Information Technology and the work environment – does IT change the way people interact at work? The Journal of Human Systems Management, 20, 267-279.

Ludden, M. (2007). Effective workplace communication : skills for success in life and on the job. Indianapolis: JIST Works

Picardi, R.P. (2001). Skills of workplace communication : a handbook for T & D specialists and their organizations. Westport, Connecticut: Quorum Books

Potterfield, T. (1999). The business of employee empowerment : democracy and ideology in the workplace. Westport: Quorum Books

Sinickas, A. (2001). Communicating is not optional. Harvard Management Communication Newsletter, 4(6), 1-3.

Sturdy, A. (2001). Customer service : empowerment and entrapment. Basingstoke: Palgrave

Tourish, D. & Robson, P. (2006). Sensemaking and the Distortion of Critical Upward Communication in Organizations. The Journal of Management Studies, 43(4), 711-730.

Whittaker, S. & Bradner, E. (2000). Interaction and Outeraction: Instant Messaging in Action. Journal of ACM, December 2-6, p. 79-88.

Wynne, J. (1993). Power Relationships and Empowerment in Hotels. Employee Relations, 15(2)

 

Military History Final

1. Why did the United States maintain neutrality in World War II? Prior to the declaration of war, what was the U.S. role in the war? How did that role change after Pearl Harbor?

After the end of the World War I, Americans had concluded that their participation in that war was a mistake that should not be repeated in future. The Neutrality Acts that were passed by the US Congress had barred the US from taking part in the WWII. According to the Acts, it was illegal for the US to sell arms or give loans to countries that were at war (Isserman, 2009). This was done hoping that it would prevent the US from joining any European conflict.
The United States tried to avoid losing American lives by engaging in European wars. In addition, the US somehow felt cheated as European leadership had promised that if the US assisted in defeating the central powers they would fight for a more formidable peace in the world than it was experienced after the previous wars (Isserman, 2009). However, this was not the case at the end of the WWI when the allied created a peace deal that was not acceptable to the American government and people. The US decision after the WWI was not to take part in future European conflicts. In addition, there was also a belief that economic and political means could be used to solve problems instead of engaging into war.

Prior to the declaration of war, the role of the US in the WWII was to assist the Allies by selling arms to them. This was after President Roosevelt requested the Congress to amend the neutrality laws. By advancing military aid to Great Britain and other countries that were fighting against Germany, the US did not see the need to be directly involved in the war. When a Japanese aircraft attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, the situation changed and the US had no option but to join the WWII since it was attacked directly and had to protect its people against the enemies (Isserman, 2009). After the attack at the Pearl Harbor, the role of the US in the WWII changed from being neutral to a direct participant in the war.

2. 
   What was the United States’ primary objective in the Korean War? Was American military involvement in the Korean War justified? Why or why not?
   When Northern Korean army attacked the South Korea, the United States convened a meeting of the United Nations Security Council. The UN Council condemned the action of the Northern Korean army and made a demand that the army should withdraw from the South. The United State’s main objective for joining the Korean War was to stop the spread of communism from the North Korea to the South Korea (Malkasian, 2008).  Moreover, the US believed that the attack of the South Korea by the Northern Korean armies was a clear indicator that communism was likely to be spread to the other parts of the world as well. The US also joined the Korean War to prevent it the war from spreading outside Korea. In a broader concept, the American leaders believed that if the invasion by the North Korea was not dealt with the Soviets would have been given a chance to engage in military expansionism to the rest of the world.

The military involvement of the US in the Korean War was justified. This is because the intention of the US using the military intervention was to stop the spread of communism from Northern Korea to the South Korea.  In 1947, the US implemented a new foreign policy that aimed to curb communism. When the North Korea forces, who were mainly communists, attacked the non-communist South Korea, the US had no option but to use military intervention. This was done to safeguard its foreign policy of preventing the spread of communism (Malkasian, 2008).   Although, the objective was not achieved fully, it was justifiable that the US tried its best to contain the situation.
3. Compare and contrast the war strategies of Presidents Kennedy, Johnson and Nixon during the Vietnam War. How were they similar and how did they differ? Based on your informed opinion, did one strategy have greater chance of success than the others?

President Kennedy’s strategy in the Vietnam War involved the establishment of the Military Assistance Command of Vietnam (MACV) which aimed to provide Americans to offer training to the South Vietnamese army. Using this strategy, the US provided thousands of Americans as military advisors to the South Vietnam. Within a short time, the number of “military advisors” had increased to more than 16,000 and it was not clear whether they were real military advisors or military forces (Westheider, 2007).  In order to deal with the Viet Cong forces, MACV made a decision to transfer all the South Vietnamese peasants into “strategic hamlets.” This enabled the US forces to protect the peasants and to identify the Viet Cong. This strategy did not work well because the hamlets were run as labor camps and hence forcing the peasants to join Viet Cong.

President Johnson applied a strategy that was similar to Kennedy’s. He continued sending more troops to Vietnam since he was driven by the fear that South Vietnam was likely to collapse and also influences other regions in the world. By sending the troops to the South Vietnam, President Johnson wanted to prevent this from happening.

Unlike Kennedy and Johnson, President Nixon applied a strategy of slowly withdrawing the American soldiers from Vietnam while supplying the Vietnamese soldiers with the necessary arms (Westheider, 2007). This strategy did no make the situation better and Nixon decided to send more troops Cambodia with an intention of interfering with the arms supply to Northern Vietnam. Again this did not work as intended. In my opinion none of the strategies had a higher chance of succeeding since they all failed. Instead, different strategies were required at Vietnam.

4. Examine the strategy of the U.S. military from its beginning up to Desert Storm. Ignoring the obvious technological advances how has the role of the American military and its strategy evolved from the Revolutionary War to Operation Desert Storm?

The US military has experienced a lot of changes over the years since the Revolutionary War until the Operation Desert Storm. During the Revolutionary War, the strategy that was used by the military was to try and eliminate the maximum number of enemies.  The strategy was to make use of the advanced military equipment owned by the US (Metz, 2008). During the Revolutionary War, the US forced concentrated more of their equipment than on the strategy for using that equipment. In addition, the US military also made use of spies in gathering more information about their enemies. This is a strategy that is used even in the recent military operations like the Desert Storm. The main difference that is evident in that in the Desert Storm, the US military ensured that the finer details of the operations were not released to the press. This ensured that the information did not leak to the enemies before the attacks were done.

In the past, as observed during the Revolutionary War, the US military was mainly concerned with proving their supremacy over other military forces in the world (Metz, 2008). As the military has evolved, the objective of the most operations has changed from just proving their supremacy to bringing peace in the world. With this in mind, it is clear that the Desert Storm operations

References.

Isserman, M. (2009). World War II, Updates Edition. Michigan: Infobase.

Malkasian, C. (2008). The Korean War. New York: Rosen Publishing.

Metz, S. (2008). Iraq and the Evolution of American Strategy. New York: Routledge.

Westheider, J. (2007). The Vietnam War. New York: Routledge.

 

ADGAS Strategic Marketing

Contents

TASK 1. 3

Organization background. 3

Role of strategic marketing. 3

Implementing a marketing strategy. 4

Strategic marketing and corporate strategy. 5

TASK 2. 6

Theoretical models in strategic marketing planning. 6

Implementing strategic positioning. 6

Relationship marketing. 7

TASK 3. 9

Marketing techniques for growth.. 9

Marketing strategy for new market capitalization.. 9

Strategic marketing objective. 10

TASK 4. 12

Changes in the external environment 12

Current marketing strategy. 12

Emerging themes in organizational marketing strategy. 13

 

TASK 1

Organization background

Abu Dhabi Gas Liquefaction Company (ADGAS) was started when the flaring of gas irked the late Sheikh Zayed Bin Sultan Al Nahyan during a visit to an oil production facility. It was the first company in the whole of the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) to sell LNG in 1973 (Kazim 2012). The major market for its LPG, LNG and other products is the Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO). The company also supplies Paraffinic Naphtha and sulfur in addition to LPG and LNG to the Abu Dhabi populace.

 

Role of strategic marketing

ADGAS has been the sole supplier of gas to TEPCO for nearly four decades. The strategic partnership between these two companies was exemplified in 2011 when the Japanese company was affected by the tsunami with ADGAS helping it overcome the consequent ramifications. The Japanese acknowledged this act and the appreciation undoubtedly reinforced ADGAS’s position as the partner of choice for TEPCO. The company has endeavored to diversify its product range so that it is not solely reliant on LPG and LNG for its market. Presently, it produces and supplies paraffinic naphtha and sulfur to the global market. This diversification has ensured that the company taps into other markets outside of Japan and Abu Dhabi that currently form its core market.

The game theory of marketing strategies assumes that firms are rational in the manner in which they maximize their utilities which means that strategies are developed to realize the best possible outcomes. The theory asserts that firms do this subject to constraints that are also faced by rivals. ADGAS is, therefore, a rational firm that has weathered great adversity to become a leader in the industry. The company has been able to use its competencies to achieve a competitive edge over competitors in the same position. In proving this theory, ADGAS contributes a sizeable amount of gas to the national grid of Abu Dhabi, which is in line with the emirate’s national energy strategy. The position of ADGAS as a partner with the Emirati government ensures that the company has a ready market for its products while ensuring a good standing for easy access to other markets (Palmer, Cockton & Cooper 2007). Apart from Abu Dhabi, ADGAs supplies gas to the other emirates as well. The company’s strategic marketing thus ensures that there is a ready market and a good partnership with relevant authorities. This has also contributed to the company’s reliability in supply of gas promptly and safely to the targeted markets.

Implementing a marketing strategy

Implementing a marketing strategy is a step-by-step process. The first step in the process entails the articulation of a company’s vision. ADGAS’s vision is premised on playing a key role in the LNG and natural gas industry, creating wealth and value, implementing the National Energy Strategy and serving its valued customers and community in a socially responsible manner (Kazim 2012). From here, the company must have a clear mission statement. The company mission statement is that:

We will achieve our vision through the safe and efficient production, marketing, sale and delivery of LNG, LPG and natural gases, Paraffinic Naphtha and Sulfur; building on our ADGAS history, solid partnerships and human capital. We will strive to sustain our recognized international reputation for reliability, integrity and efficiency and to continually improve HSE and business performance. We will attract, develop and retain competent and dedicated staff (Kazim 2012).

The next stage is outlining the aims and objectives which include maximizing revenues, optimizing costs, and development of talent to grow the company. From here, the company must carry out a SWOT analysis to identify its major strengths and weaknesses, identify the opportunities for growth, and evaluate external threats that may impede such growth. The next stage is crafting a strategy that is informed by the desire to maximize strengths, reduce weaknesses, capitalize on opportunities and monitor potential threats. The global strategy for ADGAS is aimed at expanding its current market and its tactics entail relationship marketing and strategic partnerships to grow the company market share and base. After the formulation of the comprehensive strategy, the next step is actualizing it by approaching the potential customers and by aggressive marketing. Every step of the process must be constantly evaluated to ensure that it is in conformity with the overall company goals and objectives.

Strategic marketing and corporate strategy

ADGAS’s corporate strategy seeks to ensure that the company remains profitable both in the short and long term. It specifically strives to reduce flaring and emissions, maintain sustainability in its production facilities, increase returns for shareholders, maintain health, safety and environmental practices, ensure there are no interruptions to operations, develop and retain a large market for its products, enhance communication in the organization and ensure that the welfare of employees is taken care of. On the hand, the marketing strategy is meant to support the corporate strategy in ensuring that the company is efficient and profitable. Additionally, the strategy specifically looks at ensuring there is a ready market for ADGAS’s products by looking into ways in which it can expand the current customer base and diversify its products.

The company has done extensive research into the market trends and has identified a ready market for its expanding product range especially paraffinic naphtha and sulfur. Specific initiatives include market segmentation where the company has established formidable relationships, an example of which is with TEPCO. It is targeting such deals and has perfected relationship marketing to keep the contacts it establishes for the long term. The company has done a commendable job in ensuring that it positions itself as the company of choice for customers seeking quality natural gas products. It has also identified a couple of customers to whom it does direct marketing. These efforts, if well implemented, are bound to help the company achieve both its short term and long term goals.

 

TASK 2

Theoretical models in strategic marketing planning

There are many models that are used in strategic market planning. The most common of these is the use of the Ps of marketing. Presently, the most common combination is the 7Ps of marketing, an improvement from the traditional 4Ps. This model entails the assessment of the product, price, place, promotion, people, process and physical evidence. The latter three encompass the difference in the Ps of marketing. These elements are referred to as the marketing mix and are the most common in the formation of a marketing plan.

Another common model is the PESTLE analysis. This model entails the analysis of factors in the macro-environment that influence a business. They are political, economic, social, technological, legal and environmental forces. An analysis of each individual set of factors and how it uniquely influences the business forms the core of a successful plan.

Porter’s Five Forces is also a model of strategic planning. This model entails the analysis of rivalry, supplier power, threat of substitutes, buyer power, and barriers to entry in order to understand the competitiveness in the industry in which an organization operates and create a plan that addresses the unique forces. .

The other common model is segmentation, targeting and positioning. This three-stage model entails analysis of customer groups according to their unique needs and tailoring a communications strategy that best addresses them. This model is the most viable for marketing products that are unique. For example, products that require specialized distribution systems.

Implementing strategic positioning

ADGAS has been a successful producer and marketer of LPG, LNG and other products for close to four decades. This success has been due to strategic positioning of its products in a competitive environment. The company has successfully applied the 4 Ps of marketing. First, it has ensured that it has diversified its product offerings. The diversification of the products illustrates how strategic positioning can enhance the profitability of a company. Secondly, the company had a successful promotional campaign that identified TEPCO as a potential market from the onset and tailored its production and distribution channels to cater for this market. The strategic relationship between the two companies has seen them mutually grow and even help each other in times of trouble.

ADGAS has positioned itself as a reliable producer and marketer of a number of products. This capacity and proven reliability have endeared the company to the Emirati government allowing it to occupy a special position in contributing a sizeable amount of its products to the Emirati national energy grid. The partnership between the company and the government creates an avenue for positioning of the product to be accessible by other governments. This has also enhanced the place of the ADGAS products in the market. Product positioning and a strategic marketing campaign have enabled the company to enjoy unprecedented patronage in a very competitive market. The company has a well-organized research department that identifies specific need gaps in the market and works towards their satisfaction (Hooley et al 2007). The product diversification initiatives of the company were as a result of this research. Additionally, the company’s competitive product pricing is as a result of the numerous researches that go into the products. The company uses the most effective production methods to reduce costs and also offers its products at competitive prices as there are no middlemen involved.

ADGAS has aligned itself with reputable companies as its suppliers and distributors. ADMA-OPCO (Abu Dhabi Marine Operating Company) provides ADGAS with feed gas, NGSCO (National Gas Shipping Company) provides shipping services whereas GASCO (Abu Dhabi Gas Industries Ltd) is charged with compressing dehydrated gas and sending it to Abu Dhabi (Kazim 2012). These companies are reputable in the UAE and their partnership with ADGAS has positioned it as the company of choice for many consumers as they are guaranteed of reliable supply of quality products.

Relationship marketing

Relationship marketing entails the formation of long-term relationships between a company and its larger customers (Chernev 2009). These relationships are built on trust and in the capacity to deliver quantities of quality products within specified times. In this initiative, the marketer has a comprehensive profile on the customer, which includes its buying power and buying patterns. Usually, the marketer will assign a specific executive to deal directly with the large customer in order to maintain a healthy relationship built on reliability and continuity. ADGAS has ventured into relationship marketing and has identified two of its largest customers. The first is the Japanese TEPCO whereas the other is the Emirati government. The company interacts with the two customers in three distinct ways. First, there are constant visits between both sets of company personnel to appraise the capacity of the other. These visits are also augmented by constant communication between the two parties. The second mode is the creation of liaison offices like the ADGAS office in Tokyo, Japan. Since production and distribution is headquartered in the UAE and most marketing is done in Japan, ADGAS found it prudent to have officials in Japan in order to conveniently deal with TEPCO as well as source new markets. The third avenue is through annual meetings. The government and TEPCO usually have scheduled meetings with the company to discuss past engagements and plot plans for future relationships. These endeavors have elevated the company and cemented it as the choice supplier of raw materials to both institutions.

 

TASK 3

Marketing techniques for growth

Growth opportunities are usually present in the global market. In order for ADGAS to capitalize on these opportunities, a PESTLE analysis must be conducted which encompasses political, economic, social, technological, and environmental factors. Environmental factors are exemplified by the research into the energy trends in the world, which has shown that major oil discoveries are set to decline (Peixe 2013). This, coupled with economic factors of anticipated increases in the costs of extracting more oil from already existing wells, set to be much harder, will lead to a major shift in the utilization of natural gas. This means that major oil companies will be forced to use natural gas as an alternative to oil, which will lead to an increase in the market for natural gas products. Political factors have already been in play with government regulation mechanisms being crafted to ensure that the increased extraction of natural gas does not lead to destruction of the environment. Ernst & Young conducted a research in 2013 and published a report – Business Pulse: Oil & Gas report – highlighting the anticipated demand in natural gas (Peixe 2013). The company suggested that the benefits for this anticipated growth will go to MENA natural gas companies. Increased demand is expected in China, the Middle East and Africa and the close proximity of MENA producers to these markets will give them an advantage over producers in other locations. The report gives 2035 as the year by which over a quarter of the entire world’s energy will be sourced from natural gas. Technological factors have ensured that there are more advanced ways of extracting cleaner energy from natural gas like shale gas than other sources like coal. With a combination of these factors, ADGAS can expect to experience an unprecedented growth in the market for its product in the near future.

Marketing strategy for new market capitalization

The most viable marketing strategy for capitalizing on the anticipated growth in natural gas usage is segmentation, targeting and positioning. This model entails use of three comprehensive stages to reach a specified proportion of a given market. The first stage is the segmentation of the market. This stage entails the definition of the unique needs of customer groups (Best 2009). The current ADGAS market is made up of large companies like TEPCO and individual consumers including households supplied by the national energy grid. Therefore, the company already has experience in dealing with the anticipated target customers. The model used for attracting and retaining TEPCO can be applied to understand and attract other companies in China, the Middle East and Africa. The second stage entails the formulation of a communication strategy that appeals to the segmented market. Initiatives may include relationship marketing which ensures the creation of a mutual interaction between the company and customers.

The last stage involves positioning of the products so that they are easily accessible to the clients. Positioning entails placing the product in a market where it achieves maximum visibility. The quality of the product and the initiatives of other partners in achieving this quality are some of the tenets involved in positioning. This three stage marketing strategy is the best fit for capitalizing new markets as it has already been proven and tested by the company in its engagement with TEPCO. Since this model has enjoyed continued success in present engagements, then it should be transposed onto new engagements.

Strategic marketing objective

ADGAS should strive to be a major player in the new markets identified. Thus the objective of the company should be to achieve a 30% market share in the supply of LPG and LNG to Chinese manufacturers in three years by aggressively marketing its products through strategic partnerships with established players in that market. The Chinese market offers more opportunities for growth since it has a more formidable manufacturing sector unlike the Middle East and Africa. Conversely, both the Middle East and North African markets have domestic companies that have the capacity to supply these products thus increasing competition for ADGAS. Since the Chinese market is saturated by use of oil as the major energy source, there will be need for the formation of partnerships with major manufacturers in order to develop capacity for the transition to natural gas. Thus, ADGAS will develop a marketing mix that reflects the target market. The products are already well defined as they primarily consist of LPG and LNG. The price of the products will be informed by the price of feed gas from suppliers as well as the costs of producing the finished products. This price will be subject to fluctuations as there are improvements in technology increasing efficiency of production (Kotler & Keller 2008). There will have to be massive investment in development of infrastructure to transport the gas to new markets. This, however, can be achieved by formation of partnerships with shipping companies.  Finally, promotion of the products will be achieved by direct association of potential customers with ADGAS. This will entail correspondences between the companies as well as advertisements in relevant media and the internet.

 

TASK 4

Changes in the external environment

There have been improvements in production processes evidenced by increased efficiency of ADGAS’ production. These improvements have largely been due to advances in technology that have targeted low hanging fruits like improving the distribution mechanisms to ensure that there is no leakage of gases. Technology has also led to more utilization of shale gas that was unprecedented in the past. These improvements have led to a decrease in the price of feed gas and in turn have lowered the costs associated with the production of LPG and LNG. Reduced prices of natural gas have also led to an increase in demand for the products (Tollin & Carù 2008). The use of LPG and LNG in either industry or production of power was considered an expensive option especially due to existence of cheaper sources of energy. However, improvements in the production and safe use of the natural gas especially shale gas has led to decrease in prices making use of its products a viable option in energy generation for domestic or industrial use.

Government regulation has also become stricter due to increased presence of pollutants in natural gas. As a result, producers have been forced to increase their investments in safer methods of production. This has led to an increase in the cost of production. Governments have also instituted heftier penalties for companies polluting the environment. Therefore, the need for compliance to new sets of regulations has led to better technologies and higher costs.

Current marketing strategy

ADGAS has enjoyed market patronage for a long time. The fact that the company is an established producer and marketer of natural gas products is a strength. Many customers seeking to purchase its products are attracted by the success it has had in the many years of existence. Another strength is that the company has a reputation for producing high quality products. All customers are attracted to companies that have products that can readily satisfy their needs. As such, ADGAS is at a unique position since its products and strategic partnerships ensure quality products. ADGAS is ISO 14001 certified for its Environment management System (Kazim 2012). This certification is awarded to producers whose efforts towards the conservation of the environment including reduction of pollution are commendable which enhances the position of the company. There are numerous other awards that AGDAS has received including several HSE (Health Safety and Environment) awards over the years. The company’s commitment to the environment places it in an advantageous position as it enables it to strike a rapport with customers who are conscious of their environment and are also wary of the activities of big companies to achieve their bottomlines (Kotler & Armstrong 2008).

The major weakness of ADGAS is its limited product range. Up until recently, the company only dealt with LPG and LNG which limited its portfolio. Although it has expanded its product range to include Paraffinic Naphtha and sulfur, there still remains a lot that the company can do in order to target a wider customer base. The other weakness is the company’s weak presence in emerging markets. Apart from the partnership with Japanese TEPCO, the company has not expanded into other markets. This leads to it missing out on the numerous opportunities that exist in having a diverse market.

Emerging themes in organizational marketing strategy

One of the major emergent themes is the decrease in the costs of production due to improved technology. The world has witnessed unprecedented growth in the production methods which has put natural gas on a pedestal as one of the cleanest sources of energy. Competition is bound to increase as a direct result of having cheap raw materials in the market (Hastings & Saperstein 2007). However, this will be offset by an increase in demand as many manufacturers move to substitute their current energy sources with natural gas.

The use of natural gas, which is a contributor of processed greenhouse gases, is bound to give rise to stricter regulations to cap global warming and its negative effects. Here, the emergent theme is the need for compliance to ensure that the company is aligned with the new regulations.

ADGAS can respond to decrease in the prices of feed gas by ensuring that it taps into new markets in order to gain more from its operations. One of the major weaknesses of the company is its reliance on a single market. The fact that there have been major technological improvements increasing efficiency and reducing costs should serve as a wake up call for ADGAS to venture into new markets.

The company has done commendably well in ensuring that its operations are tightened to reduce pollution. To continue with this trend, it should continue its cooperation with relevant authorities to ensure that its operations stay above board.

 

 

References

Best, R.J. 2009, Market-based Management: strategies for growing customer value and profitability, 5th edn, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.

Chernev, A. 2009, Strategic marketing management, 5th Edn. Brightstar Media

Hastings, H. and Saperstein, J. 2007, Improve your marketing to grow your business. Wharton School Publishing

Hooley, G, et al, 2007, Marketing strategy and competitive positioning, 4th Edn. Financial Times/Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.

Kazim, F. 2012, ADGAS sustainability report 2012. Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, Abu Dhabi Gas Liquefaction Company Ltd. (ADGAS)

Kotler, P. and Armstrong, G. 2008, Principles of marketing, 13th edn, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.

Kotler, P. and Keller, K.L. 2008. Framework for marketing management. Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ.

Palmer, R., Cockton, J. and Cooper, G. 2007, Managing marketing: Marketing success through good management practice. Butterworth-Heinemann

Peixe, J. 2013, Ernst & Young expect huge growth in MENA natural gas market. viewed 3 March 2014 <http://oilprice.com/Latest-Energy-News/World-News/Ernst-Young-Expect-Huge-Growth-in-MENA-Natural-Gas-Market.html>

Tollin, K. and Carù, A. (Eds) 2008. Strategic market creation: A new perspective on marketing and innovation management. John Wiley and Sons,