Human Factors and Ergonomics

Background

Since time immemorial, human beings have devised tools to help them in carrying their daily activities. The complexity of the equipments has grown with time. According to Stephen (2006), the interface, between human beings and machines, has brought about “opportunities and challenges” which need to be addressed.

According to Chapanis, in 1940, psychologists and engineers started the human factors engineering whose principal goal was to find out how human beings interacted with machines (as cited by Stephen, 2006). For example, the design should consider the easy with which the body parts can handle a given device under harsh conditions. Hand motions, for instance, should be taken into account while designing a cockpit (Karl, & Kroemer-Elbert, 2010).

The discipline of Human factors (or ergonomics as it is also called) takes users to be central in the development of systems (Carl Sandom, 2004). Clause 4 of the Standard BS EN ISO 13407 explains that taking into account human beings in developing systems ensures systems (as cited by Carl Sandom):

1. that users can easily understand and use reducing the cost of training and support
2. that can satisfy users and ease stress
3. improve the output of users and reduce operational costs of organizations
4. help improve the quality of the output making an organization have a competitive advantage in the market

According to Neville (2005), Human Factors covers analyses such as “…human interaction with devices, to the design of tools and machines, to team working, and to various other general aspects of work and organizational design.” Ergonomics is not restricted to any one of factors, but it is concerned with a wide range of aspects.

Introduction

Human factors engineering is associated with engineering and psychology. According to Robert W Proctor, Kim-Phuong L. Vu, Robert W. Proctor (2005), the goal of ergonomics is to optimize the output of machines that human beings use to make their work easier. The understanding of this aspect is fundamental for any designer to be able to produce high-efficient tools. This paper presents information from various sources that have been written about human factors in performance at the workplace. It discusses the issue of human error and its effect on performance. It also discusses the application of user trials and computer-human interaction in creating efficient devices.

Cognitive Human Factors in a Working Place

System designers need to consider cognitive, human factors when designing systems and tools. According to Kerm Henriksen et al (2008), if the designers do not take into consideration the human assets and weak points then it will render tools puzzling, hazardous, unproductive, and difficult to use. System engineers, while creating the devices, should take into account the work settings. They should also consider the issues that relate to work. This will enable them to develop systems that are user friendly. Kern Henriksen et al argue that some of the issues that are work-related include disruption and stress, which “…lead to unnecessary fatigue.”

Human factor research is necessary at any workplace as it provides information about human abilities and limitations. This will enable system designers to create equipment and provide environments that are human friendly. The favorable conditions will then ensure safer, more efficient and more productive workplaces.

Human factor research is an essential aspect especially in complex systems. In such settings, the success of operations depends on a variety of components. Such operations could be in an oil refinery, a health center, an air operation or any transport system. In such cases, a human error or any malfunction could lead to serious repercussions.

Musculoskeletal disorder is a disorder that is work-related and its symptoms are, mainly, persistent pain. Sometimes they can be too adverse to cause absenteeism at work. Some jobs are likely to cause these disorders more than others are. Human factors researchers can gather data to identify jobs and work environments that are difficult. The information derived from the research can be used to reduce workers’ damages expenses, increase output, and increase employee retention.

According to David, Woods, Sidney Dekker, Richard Cook, Leila Johannesen, Nadine Sarter (2010), human error is the main contributor or “cause of incidents and accidents.” Human error leads to unwanted or unexpected result in any activity. It results in unexpected products or outcomes. Human errors might be minor or substantial. Minor errors have effects that are, in most cases, insignificant while serious errors may result in very costly consequences.

Pascale Carayon (2012) explains that people have always applied “Stop Rule” in while trying to understand the cause of an error. This is where the people applying the rule stop searching for any other possibilities when they find an acceptable cause for a happening. For instance, if an error occurs in a health care organization, then the healthcare provider who was present will be blamed for it, and this is an example of Stop Rule (Carayon, 2012).

However, many studies have appreciated the fact that not all problems or unexpected results are products of human error. Different components of systems can contribute to various errors in any activity. In systems with multifaceted components, accidents can be because of “human, technical, or environmental” factors (Strauch, 2004).

Efficiency at workplace cannot be achieved through the development of systems that are capable of reducing errors and increasing efficiency but because of personal initiatives and preferences. Administrators and service providers should take into consideration human factors in the design of tools (Henriksen et al, 2008).

According to Henriksen et al (2008), some of the factors that affect the efficiency of devices are individual characteristics (skills, training, knowledge, experience, education, physical state among others) and work characteristics (teamwork, functioning of equipment, and workflow). The physical environment, user interface, organizational environment (such as local practices, morale, norms among others), management (for example poor decisions by the management), and the external environment are other factors cited by the authors.

The idea of human-computer interaction originates from the fact that systems need to be user friendly. That is, before designers develop a system, they should consider its usefulness and usability to the potential and actual users. The designers must keep in mind the needs and capabilities of the users, of the system before they embark on its actual development. Pinker argues about this, as “The proper label for the study of mind informed by computers is not Artificial Intelligence but Natural Computation” (as cited by Serengul Smith-Atakan, 2006). Developers should design systems that will aid the human mind carry out its normal functions.

Human-computer interaction focuses on how human beings relate with computer systems (Serengul Smith-Atakan, 2006). Rather than focus on technologies that were applied in developing systems, human-computer interaction focuses on the system’s ability to add value to its users. Human-computer interactions are, in most cases, determined through the application of user trials.

A good system with a proper user interface should have “control objects” that can easily be distinguished without causing confusion to the users (Monica Sebillo, Giuliana Vitiello, Gerald Schaefer, 2008). The designers should correctly label the control systems correctly labeled using simple language that even novice users can understand.

If efficiency is to be attained and errors reduced or avoided, then systems must be easy to use and be regulated. According to Henriksen et al, if healthcare processes are regulated, nurses will have ample time to attend to patients who have “specialized needs.” The authors add that if designers created systems while considering the users, then the users will use them with ease and they will readily detect and avoid errors. Creators of equipment should consider the environmental, technical, and social factors. Rather than blaming the human error for accidents, investigators should dig into the underlying problems and address them, as this is just a symptom and not a cause.

“User trials” is one of the ways of ensuring that designers develop products that will increase efficiency at workplace. According to John (2003), during user trials, the item to be developed or designed is given to the potential and actual users of the item for testing. They will be required to use the product and then give feedback on their own. In addition to the product to be tested, designers will provide users with questionnaires that will be useful in giving feedback. The users will test the product give their own observations on the use of the system by noting down on the questionnaires provided. Users can also give their own views, in addition to the structured guidelines, given in the questionnaires.

User trials are not limited to new products only (John, 2003). Designers can also use them to assess systems that are already in the market. Old users of the product will give their opinion on what they feel about the product.

Users can do trials either in a controlled environment or a natural setting. A natural setting is more effective because no one observes the user while trying the product (John, 2003). In a natural setting, the product is tried where it will be used hence gives more reliable results.

To ensure that designers put into account the human factors, they should involve the services of human factors engineers. According to Gavriel (2012), the function of human factors engineers is to ensure that the human-computer interaction optimizes results. They should be consulted before the system is developed. The activities of human factors include function distribution, job planning, and assignment examination, place of work design, planning of support materials, and designing of the interface (Gavriel, 2012).

Although human factor and ergonomics research methods are valuable resources for addressing workplace issues, they have their limitations. First, user trials can be expensive. They take time and many resources are required to make them a success (Stephanidis, 2011). However, according to John (2003), the cost will depend on “the number of participants involved, the number of products being tested and the complexity of these products.”

Second, Stephanidis (2011) argues that user trials may not represent all groups of users, especially when a developer is designing inclusive interfaces for people with exceptional needs. It is difficult for designers to get a representation of the human population with special need during the trials. The opinion of this special group may be overlooked. This, however, does not mean that their opinions are less important than others’ are.

Third, the study periods are usually long. If the participants are not patient, most probably they will quit. Their goodwill is paramount here.

Conclusion

“Human factors” is a very important phenomenon that any design should consider. If people are able to recognize and understand similarities and differences among people, then the resulting systems will be very effective (Wong, 2007). Having more knowledge and understanding of the human factors is important in increasing the “…ability to cope, influence and motivate.” More studies in the area will be meaningful in understanding how a number of factors affect the performance of an individual.

 

References

Clarkson, J. (2003). Inclusive design: Design for the whole population. London [u.a.: Springer.

Henriksen K, Dayton E, Keyes MA, et al (2008). Patient Safety and Quality: An Evidence-Based

Handbook for Nurses. Rockville (MD): Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality

(US); Retrieved from: <http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2666/>

Kroemer, K. H. E., Kroemer, H. J., & Kroemer-Elbert, K. E. (2010). Engineering physiology:

Bases of human factors engineering/ergonomics. Berlin: Springer.

Pascale Carayon (2012).Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics in Health Care and

Patient Safety. Boca Raton: CRC Press.

Robert W Proctor, Kim-Phuong L. Vu, Robert W. Proctor (2005). Handbook Of Human Factors

In Web Design. New Jersey: Lawrence Eribaum Association, Inc.

Salvendy, G. (2012). Handbook of human factors and ergonomics. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Sandom, C. (2004). Human factors for engineers. London: Institution of Electrical Engineers.

Smith-Atakan, S. (2006). Human-computer interaction. London: Thomson.

Stanton, N. (2005). Human factors methods: A practical guide for engineering and design.

Aldershot, England: Ashgate Pub. Co.

Stephanidis, Constantine. (2011). Universal Access in Human-computer Interaction. Users

Diversity: 6th International Conference, Uahci 2011, Held As Part of Hci International

2011, Orlando, Fl, USA, July 9-14, 2011, Proceedings. Springer-Verlag New York Inc.

Stephen Guastello J. (2006).Human Factors Engineering and Ergonomics: A Systems Approach.

New Jersey: Lawrence Eribaum Associates, Inc.

Strauch, B. (2004). Investigating human error: Incidents, accidents, and complex systems.

Aldershot, England ; Burlington, VT: Ashgate.

VISUAL 2008, Sebillo, M., Vitiello, G., & Schaefer, G. (2008). Visual information systems:

Web-based visual information search and management ; 10th international conference,

VISUAL 2008, Salerno, Italy, September 11-12, 2008 : proceedings. Berlin: Springer.

Wong, Z. (2007). Human factors in project management: Concepts, tools, and techniques for

inspiring teamwork and motivation. San Fransisco: Jossey-Bass.

Woods, D.D. (2012). Behind human error.Farnham: Ashgate.

 

Last Completed Projects

Are you looking for a similar paper or any other quality academic essay? Then look no further. Our research paper writing service is what you require. Our team of experienced writers is on standby to deliver to you an original paper as per your specified instructions with zero plagiarism guaranteed. This is the perfect way you can prepare your own unique academic paper and score the grades you deserve.

Use the order calculator below and get started! Contact our live support team for any assistance or inquiry.

[order_calculator]