THE MING GOVERNMENT

 

THE MING GOVERNMENT

The Ming government (1368AD – 1644AD) enjoyed many successes in societal, political, economic and cultural aspects. This paper will analyze its cultural and political successes in order to understand the intricacies that led to these successes. Therefore, the thesis statement developed is: How effective and adaptable was the Ming government?

The Ming dynasty is considered as one of the most stable periods of Chinese history. It is considered to be one of greatness where there was a well oiled government machinery that had a large geographical domain and good administrative, law and state apparatus. The society is also regarded as having being content and therefore stable. On the contrary, there are those who regard this period as one where there was stagnation. Government policy focused on turning inward which developed xenophobia. Many researchers however argue that this stagnation was relative as there was observable progress in terms of social changes and advances in science which eclipsed all that had been achieved 2000 years prior to its existence. Critics argue that the obvious advancements in inventions were overshadowed by a conservative and sometimes extreme political ideology. The political ideology was centered on the promotion, conservation and stimulation of cultural aspects that were regarded as Chinese during that period. Historians have occasionally highlighted the ethnocentric nature of Ming politics that were later accompanied by xenophobic characteristics.

The xenophobic nature of the Ming dynasty was in sharp contrast to the open-mindedness of the preceding Yuan dynasty. This period had been characterized by a continent-wide web of trade routes and communication ways that spread across the Eurasian continent. The ethnocentric nature of the Han Chinese was as a way of rebelling against the largely foreign culture of the Mongolians that was at the heart of the Yuan dynasty. Naturally, when the Mongolians were defeated by the peasant army of the Ming Empire, the Chinese looked inward to their own culture. There was however open rejection of the Mongolian culture without any hostility being meted on foreigners. In 1403, the Yongle Emperor signed a decree which served as an annunciation of an open door policy in which all foreigners were invited[1]. In the beginning, hatred for foreigners was confined to their former rulers, their northern neighbors the Mongolians, but in due time, and due to constant raids by Mongolians, this hatred was used by the Ming rulers as the raison d’etre which led to subsequent legacies and myths. The greatest historic relic that best exemplifies Ming government’s political ideology was the Great Wall of China. Although the earliest protective wall can be traced back to the Qin dynasty (221BC – 206BC), the height point of this structure was during the Ming dynasty. During this period, the man-made structure was cast in stone that left an impression that is still evident today[2]. This structure was built as a way of the emperor defending his empire against another foreign invasion as had been the norm. The Ming armies were found wanting against Mongolian armies on open ground and therefore, the wall was deemed a necessity[3]. This mammoth structure that has numerous walls, side walls and fortified gates, where cities were, speaks of another power of the Ming dynasty; mobilization of workers, mostly farmers who built it.

The Ming dynasty was dominated by the Han Chinese and was the first of its kind since the song dynasty in 1126AD. The government succeeded in uniting the Han Chinese and also regaining control of the southern heartlands. The shape of the Chinese nation today was achieved during the Ming dynasty as it expanded its territory. Chinese indigenous people regaining control of their country is an important part of their history. During this period, they enjoyed a period of self identification where they were disconnected from the world, especially western civilizations[4]. Population growth was steady and literacy levels increased since more and more people were taught how to read and write. Scholarship, where people possessed advanced thought and education, was no longer a reserve of the elite but spread to the lower societal levels except peasants and farmers. The Yangtze River Delta[5] was fertile for growth of rich crops which led to population growth in the south and thereby increasing its economic and political importance and relevance. The Ming Empire further stretched into the inland provinces that were nominally being controlled by former rulers of the Yuan. They were vanquished and integrated into the administrative system of the Ming Empire. The isolationist policies of the government led to coastal colonies that were as a result of these frontiers evading the official Imperial Edict that banned overseas trade and travel.

Considering the above facts at face value, the Ming dynasty era seems to be a period where there was powerful governance. This was because the founding father of the empire, Zhu Yuanzhang[6], had a centrally based strong regime. A reflection of the success of this regime was in the power that it wielded in eastern Asia. The first emperors expanded Chinese influence and military control in the region which included seas and oceans surrounding the empire as well as central Asia.  There was a fundamental shift in foreign policy. Previous dynasties had maintained cordial relations with foreign nations under the banner of mutual equality. However, the Ming government had a centered view of China that did not recognize fraternity and equality[7]. In this new order, the empire was centrally placed and nations around it were meant to pay tribute to its importance as a central figure. The government was not only successful in dealing with foreign powers but also increased internal control and oversight. All regional leaders including; governors and other local administrators were chosen on merit and were even judged, examined recruited and eventually appointed directly by a central government sitting in the capital city. The powers and authority of the emperor were greatly increased in the Ming dynasty as compared to the Yuan dynasty due to increased control of the large government bureaucracy. The neo-Confucianism ideal was imparted into the lay people who bought into the philosophy of nationhood as espoused by their admirable first emperors. Neo-Confucianism was studied and adopted as a new moral and social guide for all Chinese up to and including the ruler.

After much success, the Ming emperors made many wrong choices including spending much of the empire’s resources on their own lavish lifestyles. These were periods of political weakness that eventually translated to decline of the once powerful dynasty[8]. The founding fathers of the empire, informed by paranoia, had laid down a set of strict rules that were meant to dictate conduct and ethics in order to uphold power of the dynasty at all times. During the entire life of the Ming dynasty, and despite great flexibility in the society and great changes in administration, agriculture remained central to the economy. This meant that the majority of citizens were peasants and farmers. Since the government did not adapt to the needs of these people towards the end, where they were heavily taxed and subjected to cruelty by landlords, who owned much of the agricultural land, they rebelled eventually leading to the collapse of the empire.

The Ming government was very effective in a number of ways. First, it was able to consolidate the Han Chinese, the indigenous people to form a relatively local government. Second, the government was able to foster peaceful coexistence between the indigenous Chinese and their formers rulers, the Mongolians. Third, it was able to avoid future invasions by the north by building defenses and forbidding trade and travel to other frontiers. Fifth, it was able to increase its influence in the region by empowering its local population. Sixth, it was able to stimulate population growth through a number of societal changes and economic empowerment. Seventh, it was able to promote a Chinese culture through neo-Confucian ideologies. Initially, the government was very adaptable to the needs of its citizenry as it empowered them to be more productive by looking inward. This is evidenced by the fact that peasants and farmers were mobilized to build the Great Wall of China. However, the government was eventually unable to cater for the needs of the increased peasant and farmer population which led to its fall.

Bibliography

Buck, Pearl S. All Men Are Brothers. London: Methuen & Co. ltd., 1937

Cheng, Pei-kai. Continuities in Chinese Political Culture: Interpretations of Li Zhi, Past and Present. Chinese Studies in History 17, no. 2 (Winter 1983-84): 4-29

Ebrey, Patricia Buckley, Anne Walthall and James B. Palais. East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2006

Li, Bo and Zheng Ying. 5000 years of Chinese history. Inner Mongolia People’s Publishing House, 2000

Robinson, David M. Banditry and the Subversion of State Authority in China: The Capital Region during the Middle Ming Period (1450–1525). Journal of Social History (2000): 527–563.

Wakeman, Frederick, Jr. Rebellion and Revolution: The Study of Popular Movements in Chinese History. The Journal of Asian Studies (1977): 205–234.

Wong, H.C. China’s Opposition to Western Science during Late Ming and Early Ch’ing. Isis 54, no. 1 (1963): 29–49.

 

[1]           Pearl Buck S, All Men Are Brothers [Shui hu chuan], (London: Methuen & Co. ltd., 1937)

[2]           Pei-kai Cheng, Continuities in Chinese Political Culture: Interpretations of Li Zhi, Past and Present, Chinese Studies in History 17, no. 2 (Winter 1983-84): 17

[3]           David Robinson M, Banditry and the Subversion of State Authority in China: The Capital Region during the Middle Ming Period (1450–1525), Journal of Social History (Spring 2000): 540

[4]           H.C Wong, China’s Opposition to Western Science during Late Ming and Early Ch’ing, Isis 54, no. 1 (1963): 32

[5]           Bo Li and Ying Zheng, 5000 years of Chinese history (Inner Mongolia People’s Publishing House, 2000)

[6]           Ibid

[7]           Patricia Buckley Ebrey, Walthall Anne and Palais James B, East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2006)

[8]           Frederick Wakeman Jr., Rebellion and Revolution: The Study of Popular Movements in Chinese History, The Journal of Asian Studies (1977): 222

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